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SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS 



OF THE 



UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 




1868-1918 



THE SEMICENTENARY 
CELEBRATION 



OF THE FOUNDING OF THE 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE 



CONFERENCE ON 
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 



1868-1918 



BERKELEY 
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SEMICENTENARY CELEBRATION 
COMMITTEE 

Professor Charles Henry Eieber, Chairman 
Herbert McLean Evans 
William Carey Jones 
Aemin Otto Letjschner 
John Campbell Merriam 
Leon Josiah Richardson 
Henry Morse Stephens 



CONTENTS 

Peeface - - - xi 

General Programme xv 

I. SPECIAL EVENTS OF THE WEEK 
Opening Addresses 

Address of Welcome, by President Benjamin Ide Wheeler ..-.. 1 

Introductory Address, by Professor Charles Henry Eieber 3 

A Betrospect, by Professor George C. Edwards 5 

The Latest Gifts to the University, by Professor Leon J. Richard- 
son _ 10 

Responses of Delegates 

For Stanford University, by Professor Charles David Marks 17 

For Mills College, by President Aurelia Eeinhardt 19 

For the Republic of China, by Mr. Yung-Yu Yen 21 

For the University of Washington, by President Suzzallo 22 

Dedication of the Jane K. Sathek Tower 

Introduction, by President Wheeler 27 

Ode to the Sather Campanile, by Mr. Edward Robson Taylor — . 28 

Address for the Faculty, by Professor Ivan M. Linforth 32 

Address for the Students, by Mr. John L. Reith 34 

Addresses at the Sather Tower following the Military Review 
and Parade on the Campus 

For the Faculty, by President Wheeler 38 

For the Army, by Colonel Mervin Maus 39 

For the Navy, by Captain Robert Russell 42 

The Professional Man, in Service, by Dr. Herbert C. Moffitt 45 

The University Man in Service, by Captain A. J. Eddy - 47 

The Civilian in Service, by Mr. Sayre MacNeill 50 

Dedication of Gilman Hall 

Introduction by Professor Edmund O'NeiU 53 

Address by Professor Stillman of Stanford University 57 

Address by Dr. Duschak of the University of California 62 

Dedication of the Paget Chair 

Introduction by Professor William Carey Jones 65 

Address by Professor Charles Gilbert Chinard —. 67 

Address by Professor Cestre of the University of Bordeaux 69 

[vii] 



UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

Dedication of the Bust of John M. Eshelman 

Introduction by Professor Charles Henry Eieber 72 

Address by Mr. Max Thelen - 73 

Address by Colonel Harris Weinstock ..— 75 

Univeesity Club Banquet 

Introduction by Mr. Willard N. Drown 83 

Toast: The President of the United States, Response by Governor 

Stephens - 83 

Address for the University, by Professor Ai-min O. Leuschner 84 

Address by President Hill of the University of Missouri 87 

The Special Contribution of France to the International Idea, by 

Professor Cestre of the University of Bordeaux 91 

Vision and Reconstruction, by Professor Anesaki of Tokyo 101 

Toast: The Navy, Response by Captain Eussell 104 

Toast: The Army, Response by Major Warren 105 

Alumni Banquet 

Introduction by Mr. Wiggington Creed 107 

Address for the University, by President Wheeler 109 

Address by Professor Sloane of Columbia University 112 

Address by Professor Breasted of the University of Chicago 117 

Address by Professor Swain of Harvard University 121 

Address by Professor Henry Morse Stephens 124 

The Hitchcock Lectures of the University of California, by Pro- 
fessor Swain of Harvard University 

The First Quebec Bridge and its Failure: Synopsis 135 

The Second Quebec Bridge: Synopsis 137 

Rapid Transit in Cities and the Means of Obtaining It: Synopsis .... 138 
The Present Situation with Regard to the Development of Water 

Power and Federal Legislation on the Subject 138 

Some Controversial Points in the Valuation of Public Utility Prop- 
erties 159 

The E. T. Earl Lectures of the Pacific School of Religion, by 
Professor Breasted of the University of Chicago 
The Earliest Internationalism 192 

The Barbara Weinstock Lectures of the University of Califor- 
nia, BY Professor Tufts of the University of Chicago 
The Ethics of Cooperation 215 

The Faculty Research Lecture of the University of California, 
BY Professor Rudolf Schevill 
Cervantes and Spain's Golden Age of Letters 237 

[viii] 



CONTENTS (Continued) 

Special Lectures 

Jean Jacques Bousseau and the Renaissance of Moral Intuition, by 

Professor Cestre of the University of Bordeaux 257 

The Press and International Eelations, by Mr. Oswald Garrison 

Villard 270 

The University Extension Movement, by President Van Hise of 

the University of Wisconsin 281 

What Do We Mean by Democracy? by Professor Perry of Harvard 

University 285 

Japanese Views on Present International Problems, by Professor 

Anesaki of the University of Tokyo 299 

Ohartee Day Exercises 

Introduction by President Benjamin Ide Wheeler 315 

Charter Day Address : The World War and Some of its By-Prodiicts, 

by President Hutchins of the University of Michigan 316 

Conferring of Honorary Degrees 336 

II. CONFEEENCE ON INTERNATIONAL EELATIONS 

First Session : The History of the Pacific Ocean Area 

Introduction by the Chairman, Professor Henry Morse Stephens .... 345 
The Foundations of American Policy in the Far East, by Professor 

Treat of Stanford University 346 

Discussion by Dr, Yen of the University Bureau of China ; Professor 
Ichihashi of Stanford University; Professor Malcolm of the 
University of Southern California; Professor Chapman of the 
University of California; Mr. Kawikami of San Francisco; Mr, 
Villard of New York 356 

Second Session: International Aspects of the Labor Problem 

Introduction by the Cliairman, Professor Carl C. Plehn 371 

Address by Mr. MacArthur of San Francisco 372 

Discussion by Mr. Kawikami, Mr, Kasai, and Mr. Mullen 376 

Third Session : International Relations in Science 

Introduction by the Chairman, Professor John C. Merriam 390 

Address by Professor Campbell of the Lick Observatory 390 

Third Session: Oceanographic Problems of the North Pacific 

Introduction by the Chairman, Dr. Evermann of the California 

Academy of Sciences 414 

Address by Professor Eitter of the Scripps Biological Institute 415 

Address by Dr. Marvin of the U. S. Weather Bureau 422 

Address by Mr. Blair of the U. S. Weather Bureau 427 

Address by Dr. Brooks of Yale University 435 

Address by Dr. Dawson of Ottawa, Canada 446 

Address by Dr. Palmer of the U. S. Weather Bureau 449 

[ix] 



UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

Fourth Session : International Aspects of Certain Biological Problems 

of the North Pacific 

Address by Dr. Jordan, Chancellor, Stanford University 454 

Migration of Birds in its International Bearing, by Dr. Grinnell 

of the University of California 467 

Some Phases of WorTc of Biological Stations, by Dr. Bovard of 

the University of Oregon - - 471 

Botanical Information Which we Should he Seeking, by Dr. Frye 

of the University of Washington - - 473 

Eemarks by Dr. Jordan of Stanford University 475 

Fifth Session: Problems of Agricultural Education and Eesearch 

Introduction by the Chairman, Dr. Thomas Forsyth Hunt 478 

Address by Professor Mead of the University of California 479 

Discussion by Professor Mackie of the University of California; 

Professor Donaghho of the University of Hawaii 488 

Address by Professor Gilmore of the University of California 496 

Sixth Session: International Aspects of Trade and Commerce 

Introduction by the Chairman, Professor Henry Eand Hatfield 502 

Address by Mr. Koster of San Francisco 503 

Discussion by Mr. Eobert Lynch, Mr. John R. Eossiter, and Mr. 
Kasai, of San Francisco 510 

Seventh Session: Problems of Education 

Introduction by the Chairman, Professor Alexis F. Lange 521 

Address by President Suzzallo of the University of Washington 523 

Discussion by President Foster of Eeed College ; President Van Hise 
of the University of Wisconsin 531 

III. SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS 

Foreword .— - - - - - 547 

List of Publications 549 

ILLUSTEATIONS 

North Hall - - Facing title page 

The Library Facing page 1 

Sather Tower Facing page 27 

Military Eeview and Parade ...Facing page 39 

Old Cheimstry Building ....Facing page 53 

LeConte Oak and Grove.. ...Pacing page 65 

Founders' Eock , Facing page 83 

The Greek Theatre Facing page 315 

Wheeler Hall Facing page 345 



[x] 



PREFACE 



The University of California commemorated its 
fiftieth anniversa7'y March 23, 1918 tuith a programme 
quite different from that which has noiv come to he 
typical for such occasions. A high academic festival 
such as originally planned would have heen out of 
place at a time tvhen the thoughts of all men tvere 
intently centered on the problems of the war. 

In these troublesome times tve should have been 
unjustified in celebrating even so important an event 
in the life of the University as its fiftieth anniversay 
were the occasion to be mai^ked merely ivith the cus- 
tomary festivities and the recounting of past achieve- 
ments. We have therefore made the distinctive fea- 
ture of this celebration an earnest consideration of 
the future. The history of any institution is genuinely 
significant only in so far as it defines possible lines of 
action for the future. 

Otving also to the comparative isolation of the 
University of California in the major academic tuorld 
the observance of the Semicentenary tvas largely a 
domestic affair, a Jwme-coming of the Alumni and 
the keeping of open house for nearby friends and 
neighbors. Because of the distance and the necessity 



UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMWENTENABY 

of economy in these uncertain times, comparatively 
few American universities and hut three foreign in- 
stitutions ivere able to send delegates from the actual 
teaching staff. The universities had released for war 
service so many members of their faculties that 
we did not have the pleasure of welcoming to our 
academic fireside any considerable number of our 
colleagues from other institutions. 

At the time when the United States tvith all the 
world was giving such serious attention to inter- 
national relations it seemed fitting that the Univer- 
sity should aim to make some contribution to the 
mutual understanding among peoples. Because of 
our geographical position and the growing importance 
of the reciprocal interests around the Pacific, we ex- 
tended invitations to an International Conference of 
the Nations bordering the Pacific Ocean. 

The vital intercourse across the Pacific makes one 
recognize at once the high significance of such recur- 
rent Pacific international conferences. All are aware 
of the advantage and need of the gathering together 
of men bent upon giving and receiving intelligent 
judgment upon problems whose solution will diminish 
the occasion for international friction and will ad- 
vance the commmi good. The proposed conference 
met with cordial approval. Men who could not have 
been persuaded to attend a mere academic festival 
journeyed from afar for this conference, and we 
believe that the outcome of those deliberations will 
alone have justified our Semicentenary Celebration. 



GENERAL PROGRAMME 



GENERAL PROGRAMME 

FIRST DAT 

Monday, March the Eighteenth 

10.00 A.M. Addresses of Welcome to Delegates and Guests. 

11.00 a.m. Responses op Delegates. 

2.00 P.M. Conference on International Relations. 

The Foundations of American Policy in the 
Far East. Professor Payson Jackson Treat. 

3.00 P.M. Discussion. 

4.00 P.M. Hitchcock Lectures op the University op Cali- 
fornia, 

The Quebec Bridge, Professor George Fillmore 
Swain. 

8.00 P.M. The E. T. Earl Lectures op the Pacific School 
OF Religion. 

The Earliest Internationalism. Professor 
James Henry Breasted. 

SECOND DAY 

Tuesday, March the Nineteenth 

10.00 A.M. Conference on International Relations. 

International Aspects of the Labor Problem. 
Mr. Walter MacArthur. 

10.00 a.m. Meeting of the Western Society of Naturalists. 

11.00 a.m. Conference on International Relations. 

Jean Jacques Rousseau and the Renaissance 
OP Moral Intuition in the Eighteenth Cen- 
tury. Professor Charles Cestre. 
2.00 P.M. International Relations in Science. Director W. 
W. Campbell. 

[XV] 



VNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

3.00 P.M. Conference on International Relations. 

The Origin and Nature of the Suggestion Con- 
cerning THE International Exploration op 
THE North Pacific. Professor William E. 
Bitter. 

4.00 P.M. Discussion. 

4.00 P.M. Hitchcock Lectures of the University of Cali- 
fornia. 

The New Quebec Bridge. Professor George Fill- 
more Swain. 

6.15 P.M. Dinner of the Western Society of Naturalists. 

8.00 P.M. Wild Animal Life in California. Harold C. 
Bryant. 



THIED DAY 

Wednesday, March the Twentieth 

10.00 a.m. Meeting of the Western Society of Naturalists. 

2.00 P.M. Conference on International Relations. 

International Aspects of Certain Biological 
Problems of the North Pacific. Chancellor 
David Starr Jordan. 

3.00 P.M. Discussion, 

4.00 P.M. Reception to Delegates, Speakers, and Invited 
g-uests by the trustees and faculty of 
Mills College. 

4.00 P.M. Hitchcock Lectures of the University of Cali- 
fornia. 

Subways and Rapid Transit in Cities. Pro- 
fessor George Fillmore Swain. 

[xvi] 



GENERAL PROGRAMME 

6.30 P.M. Dinner to George Fillmore Swain. 

7.00 P.M. Dinner to President Hutchins. 

8.00 P.M. Conference on International Relations. 

Journalism and International Relations. Dr. 
Oswald Garrison Villard. 

7.30 P.M. Demonstration by the Department of Physical 
Education for Men: 

7:30 TO 8.00 p.m. Demonstration of Mass In- 
struction IN Athletics as at Present Con- 
ducted AT THE University. 

8.00 TO 10.00 P.M. Interclass Boxing, Wrest- 
ling, Fencing, and Gymnastic Competitions. 

FOUETH DAY 

Thursday, March the Twenty-first 

9.00 A.M. Conference on International Relations. 

Scientific and Educational Aspects op Agri- 
culture IN Countries Bordering the Pacific. 
Dr. Elwood Mead. 

10.00 A.M. Discussion. 

11.00 A.M. What Do We Mean by Democracy? Professor 
Ralph Barton Perry. 

2.00 P.M. Weinstock Lecture. 

Ethics of Co-operation. Professor James 
Hayden Tufts. 

3.00 P.M. Conference on International Relations. 

The International Aspects of Trade and 
Commerce. Mr. Frederick J. Koster. 

4.00 P.M. Discussion. 



[xvii] 



VNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

4.00 P.M. Hitchcock Lectures of the University of Cali- 
fornia. 
Water Power Legislation. Professor George 
Fillmore Swain. 

7.30 P.M. Senior Women's Singing in Senior Women's 
Hall. Open house to visiting alumnae. 

8.00 P.M. Faculty Research Lecture. 

Cervantes and Spain's Golden Century of 
Letters. Professor Rudolf Schevill. 



FIFTH DAY 

Friday, March the Twenty-second 

10.30 A.M. Dedication of Gilman Hall. 

11.00 A.M. Meeting for Consideration op Recurrent Con- 
ferences on International Problems of the 
Pacific. 

11.30 A.M. Japanese Views Touching Present International 
Problems. Professor Masahasu Anesaki. 

12.30 p.m. Regents' Luncheon. Faculty Club. 

2.00 p.m. Review and Parade of a Brigade Composed of the 
School of Military Aeronautics, of a Bat- 
talion OF the United States Navy, and of 
THE University of California Reserve Offi- 
cers' Training Corps. Exercises at Sather 
Tower. 

5.00 p.m. Regular Weekly Inspection by Col- 
onel G. B. Hunter, United States School 
OF Military Aeronautics. 

5.10 p.m. Evening Parade and Retreat, and 
Graduation of Senior Squadron. 

4.00 P.M. Conference on International Relations. 

Education After the War. President Henry 
Suzzallo. 

[xviii] 



GENERAL PROGRAMME 

4.00 P.M. Hitchcock Lectures of the University op Cali- 
fornia. 

Some General Principles and Disputed Points 
IN the Valuation of Public Utility Corpora- 
tions. Professor George Fillmore Swain. 

4.00 P.M. Conference of the University Extension Division. 

6.00 P.M. Class Dinners. 

7.00 P.M. Dinner Tendered to the Delegates, Speakers, 
and Guests by the University Club, San 
Francisco. 

7.00 P.M. Annual Dinner and Initiation, Alpha of Cali- 
fornia of Phi Beta Kappa. 

8.00 p.m. The University Extension Movement. 

Addresses by President Charles R. Van Hise 
and Dr. Oswald Garrison Villard. 



SIXTH DAY 

Saturday, March the Twenty-third 
CHARTER DAY 

10.00 A.M. Charter Day Exercises at the Greek Theatre. 

Charter Day Address. President Harry Burns 
Hutchins. 

12.00 M. Alumni, Faculty Club, and Fraternity Lunch- 
eons. 

2.00 p.m. Dedication of the Eshelman Bust. 



[xix] 



VNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

2.30 P.M. Dedication of the Sathee Tower. The Chimes 
Master played a brief passage from Beethoven's 
Ninth Symphony. 

3.00 P.M. Dedication op the Paget Chair. Greek Theatre. 

4.00 P.M. President and Mrs. Wheeler's Reception to the 

Delegates. 

7.30 P.M. Alumni Banquet. 



[XX] 



PART FIRST 

SPECIAL EVENTS OF THE WEEK 



ADDRESS OF WELCOME 
President Benjamin Ide Wheeler 

Members and friends of the university of California: 
We are assembled in preparation to celebrate the fiftieth anni- 
versary of the action of the Legislature of California in 
organizing the University of California. This action received 
the active support of Governor Frederick F. Low during his 
incumbency from 1863 to 1868, and the organizing act of the 
Legislature was signed by Governor H. H. Haight on March 23, 
1868. Thereby this University came into existence. 

For eight years prior thereto instruction of collegiate char- 
acter had been given through a privately supported institution 
incorporated at Oakland under the name of the College of 
California, and upon the organization of the University this 
institution was merged in it as its College of Arts; it being 
understood and agreed that all past graduates of the College 
should rank in all respects as graduates of the University. The 
College of Arts, now expanded to be called the College of Letters 
and Science, has had, therefore, a continuous existence from the 
year 1860. 

The College owed its foundation and early development most 
to Yale, while the University was chiefly shaped on that type of 
state university embodied in the University of Michigan. Eight 
years ago we celebrated the foundation of the College under the 
comfort and blessing of President Hadley of Yale; this week 
we celebrate the foundation of the University under the fortunate 
presence and cognizance of President Hutchins of Michigan. 

The University of California has learned much from the 
experience of other and older institutions, particularly the state 
institutions of the central West ; but quite as much as any one 



2 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

of the state universities has it been influenced by the older 
universities of the northeastern division. Its distance, however, 
from the main educational centers, and its peculiar environment 
and situation have given it occasion to much independent pro- 
cedure; and among other and more specific conditions which 
have favored or permitted such procedure may be mentioned 
the following: 

1. The Organic Act, operating practically as a charter, gave 
stability to the management and encouraged continuity in the 
action of the Board of Regents. 

2. The sixteen-year terms of the appointive Regents not only 
gave stability and continuity to the action of the Board, but 
aided in encouraging the State to entrust to the Regents tasks 
outside the institution located at Berkeley. 

3. The ex officio members in the Board tended to draw the 
University closer to the administration of the government and 
to the people of the State. 

4. The existence of the College of California as a nucleus of 
the University aided from the beginning in establishing upon 
sure footing the humanistic disciplines. 

5. The existence of an endowment fund, derived first from the 
more than usually fortunate sale of public lands, gave encour- 
agement to private gifts. 

6. The State has thus far wisely entrusted to the care of the 
Regents of the University all of its undertakings in the field of 
higher learning and research, sparing itself thereby foolish com- 
petitions between two or more boards within the same State. 

But whatever it is and however it so came to be, the Univer- 
sity of California, so being, with all its heart opens to you, its 
guests this day, its doors and offers access to its hearth, and bids 
you come in and draw nigh. 

The affairs of this day, the arrangement for this feast, are 
in the hands of Professor Rieber, and to him I give the fate of 
this meeting. 



INTBODUCTOBT ADDBESSES 



INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS 
Charles Henry Rieber, Ph.D. 

Professor of Logic, University of California, 
Chairman of the Semieentenarj Celebration 

Mr. president, members of the faculty, and guests: 
Many of us have waited long for this hour with varying degrees 
of anxiety and pride. Eight years ago the committee on Semi- 
centennial Publications began its work. Looking forward from 
those distant years this day seemed to all of us one that held forth 
the promise of sheer gladness and unalloyed pleasure in a high 
academic festival. But today no one may conceal from him- 
self that it is an hour in which all must recognize the very 
serious responsibilities of these times. In fact, during the past 
two or three months many of the members of our committee 
wondered if it might not be unwise, perhaps improper for the 
University to celebrate even such an important anniversary as 
the fiftieth anniversary. I may say, therefore, for our com- 
mittee, that while some of our plans were begun several years 
ago, the programme for the week was prepared on very short 
notice, and under most trying conditions. No one seemed able 
to say in advance where he or anyone else would be in a week's 
time. 

But let us hope that we who are here, although we are all in 
a state of serious and even solemn thought, may, nevertheless, 
find it not unfitting to rejoice over the significant happenings 
during the first fifty years of the life of this University. 

A brief tale of those years is to be told by our next speaker. 
Before introducing him I should like to say, however, that the 
Committee on Semicentennial Publications intended to publish 
a history of the University of California in one volume; but 
when the facts were being assembled it was found that not one, 
but three or four volumes would be needed, so they abandoned 
the project. I speak of this to emphasize the difficulties that 
must have confronted the next speaker. He is a man particu- 
larly qualified for the task assigned him, because not only has 
he actively taught here many years, but he is also one of the 



4 UNIVEBSITY 0£' CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

earliest graduates of this University and is familiar with the 
entire stretch of fifty years. He will give us something like a 
flashlight series of views, with particular reference to some of 
the University's early benefactors. 

I refer, of course, to our beloved Professor George C. 
Edwards. 



A BETBOSPECT 



A RETROSPECT 



George C. Edwards, Ph.B. 

Professor Emeritus of Mathematics, University of California 

Mr. president, invited guests, students of the university, 
FRIENDS ALL: The day of the golden wedding of Athene and 
California approaches. It is well at such a time to review quietly 
and rapidly the birthday and the wedding gifts that have come 
to this pair during their happy married life. The latest gifts 
another will recount to you. The story of the gifts for the other 
forty-nine years has been assigned to me, one of the elder sons, 
to tell in the space of fifteen or sixteen minutes. The task is an 
impossible one. The pleasure of simply referring to a few is 
a very agreeable pleasure. It is not a task. 

As I have been running back over the history of the institu- 
tion and calling to mind the long list of its benefactors, it has 
given me a great deal of pleasure and but little difficulty to select 
those names that I desire to speak of at this time. I first sat 
down and wrote out a list of the names of those who had made 
gifts to the University as they occurred to me in the space of 
thirty minutes. Then I went to the records, and I commenced 
from the last year and started to run back. I counted twelve 
hundred donations in the last ten years and quit. Then I 
decided that the little pencil sketch that I had made originally 
I would adhere to, and I have done so. 

The beginnings of the University run back to 1849 when the 
quest for gold was upon us. Three men. Rev. S. H. Willey, 
Sherman Day, and Rev. C. S. Lyman undertook to organize a 
college. They were not successful in raising the necessary money 
for it. Their undertaking was, of course, abandoned. In 1855 
efforts were again put forth which resulted in the obtaining of 
a charter for the old College of California, that President 
Wheeler has already referred to. In 1860 it opened its doors, 
and its full staff was composed of Rev. S. H. "Willey, who was 
Vice President and Financial Secretary, Henry Durant, Martin 
Kellogg, and Isaac Brayton. Today in the University of Cali- 



6 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

fomia there are more than forty professors in one of the depart- 
ments. 

The first graduating class, as you have already learned, was 
in 1864, and one of the men who graduated from the old College 
of California is on this platform today. Excuse me for men- 
tioning his name, but it seems fitting that I should do so, Gardner 
F. Williams; a man who has spent many years of his life in 
South Africa; who has done much for the reputation of this 
institution; and who has done much to help the men who have 
gone out from this institution. I am glad to see him here today ; 
he antedates all of us. 

In 1869 the University opened its doors. There were twenty- 
five of us freshmen on the steps. The University adopted from 
the old College of California two sophomores, five juniors and 
three seniors. The total student body was thirty-five. The 
records say forty. There were some special students who came 
in the latter part of the year and some came to attend lectures. 
There were ten professors, so that the University actually con- 
sisted of forty-five persons. 

I have been asked to say something about the gifts that have 
come to the institution. I suppose I have been asked for this 
reason: through accident I happen to be the only man who has 
been continuously connected with the Univei-sity from the day 
it opened its doors until now. I entered in 1869 as a freshman ; 
when I graduated I became an instructor and I have been here 
ever since. 

The donations that have been made to this University are 
divided into two classes: those which are of the permanent 
endowment type, which make return to the University through 
investment, and those which do not make immediate return, but 
are expended in bettering the institution, as in the construction 
and equipment of buildings. The funds which make immediate 
return are classed as permanent endowments, and amount to 
$5,500,000. Other donations which are not of that class, but 
which have been given to the University and have been expended 
for work done here amount to $5,500,000 more, making a total 
donation of about $11,000,000. Of these amounts the Federal 
endowment is represented by three-quarters of a million; the 
consolidated perpetual endowment is represented by $992,000. 



A BETBOSPECT 7 

One of the most important gifts that came to this University- 
was from the College of California. When the College of 
California ceased to exist it deeded all of its property, which 
consisted of land in Oakland where the old college buildings 
were, which were occupied by the University for four years, and 
also the site where we now are. This site was presented to the 
University of California and to the people of the State of Cali- 
fornia by the College of California. 

The first professorship was established in 1872, when Edward 
Tompkins, who was one of the active men in the organization 
of the University, gave property out on Broadway in Oakland, 
estimated at that time to be worth $50,000, for the purpose of 
establishing the Agassiz Chair of Oriental Languages and Litera- 
ture. The fund at the present time amounts to $106,000. Most 
of you know that Profesor Freyer, who is now Emeritus, occu- 
pied the position as head of that department for many years. 

In 1873 the Medical Department of the University was 
founded with an endowment from Dr. H. H. Toland, of $75,000. 
In the records the $75,000 is referred to as a comfortable gift 
for that year; but the gifts of that time amount to very little 
as compared with the amounts you will hear read to you today. 
In the same year (1895) D. 0. Mills commenced his donations 
to the University, as well as Fredrick Billings, Michael Reese, 
and others. And while speaking of Michael Reese, I remember 
that there was a man who died worth six millions of dollars ; and 
yet the only thing that is left of Michael Reese is the fifty 
thousand dollars which he gave to the University Library. I 
do not know that I ought to tell this story of the death of Reese. 
But as he was an interesting character in California I will risk 
it. He went back to Germany to make a visit, and he thought 
he would go out to the cemetery where his father and mother 
were buried. Michael Reese, worth six millions of dollars, went 
to the cemetery and wanted to go in; they asked him a mark 
for the privilege. He became so angry at what must have seemed 
to him an outrageous demand that he went around behind the 
cemetery, climbed over the wall and got inside. The exertion, 
however, was so great he died of heart failure. 

In 1874 the donation of the Lick Observatory was made. 

The year 1878 saw the donation of the first building to the 



8 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

University of California to be located on the present site, the 
building we are now in, given by A. K. P. Harmon. The same 
year H. D. Bacon donated $25,000 and the State gave an equal 
amount for the construction of Bacon Hall. Not only did Bacon 
give the money, but also much of his household goods, twenty- 
five hundred volumes of his library, statuary, and paintings. 

In 1881 D. O. Mills established the Mills Professorship by 
a donation of $75,000, which through wise investment now 
amounts to $170,000 and more. 

The Hearst Greek Theatre is one of the things that has given 
quite a reputation to the University. Not very long ago a gen- 
tleman traveling in Europe was asked where he was from; he 
said, ''From the University of California." ''Where is that?" 
he was asked. "Well, I am from San Francisco." "Oh, yes, 
San Francisco, that is where they have that outdoor Greek 
Theatre." It has given a reputation to the University of 
California that is unique. 

Since then we have had the Doe Library and Boalt Hall. 
Mrs. Boalt gave $100,000 for the erection of a building, and the 
lawyers of the State contributed $50,000. Mrs. Boalt has since 
left an endowment of $200,000 for the Professorship of Law. 

Next on mj'- list comes the Cora Jane Flood donation of 
$377,000; the Sather endowment, which made possible the 
Sather gate and the Campanile; two professorships and other 
donations ; the Clarance W. Mackey endowment for a professor- 
ship ; and the Hooper bequest of one million dollars for medical 
research. 

The University Hospital recently built at a cost of $600,000 
was made possible by popular subscription. 

Then there are graduates of the University who have done 
much. E. V. Cowell, J. K. Moffitt, and others. The French 
Government gave us the library that is of so much interest at 
the present time. Other donors whose names occurred to me 
are Annie M. Alexander, I. W. HeUman, H. W. Carpentier, and 
J. C. Cebrian. 

Among those who have established scholarships are Joseph 
Bonheim, William R. Davis, Carrie M. Jones, Willard D. 
Thompson, and Levi Strauss, in actual money amounting to 
$400,000. 



A BETBOSPECT 9 

There is another person I have not yet mentioned, intimately 
associated with the very life and well-being of this institution. 
That person is Mrs. Hearst. She has bestowed upon the Uni- 
versity a wealth of hope, of faith, and of affection. A veritable 
gentlewoman is she, the faiiy godmother, as the students call 
her ; a women whose example is an inspiration ; one whose money 
donations it takes seven places of figures to represent. She gave 
until it hurt, and then more. Long may she live, a blessing to 
Athene and California. 

There are others who have given. While it may not always 
be in money, it has been in faith and good works ; and as I stand 
here now I think of those departed ones who labored in the 
various buildings around this campus ; I recall Joseph Le Conte 
over there; I recall Hilgard over yonder; Rising in the Chem- 
istry Building; Soule there; Christy over there; Howison 
yonder ; Hesse over there ; then in North Hall Kellogg, Welcker, 
Stringham, Sill, Paget, Bacon, and a lot of others who have 
given of the best of their lives to this institution. And while a 
student who comes here does not know it, there is a pressure 
upon him, — a pressure upon every one of you, because Joseph Le 
Conte lives; you may not have heard of Joseph Le Conte, but 
his spirit is here, and upon this campus there is an influence 
which is due to the life of a devoted, scholarly gentleman. 
Others yet have given their lives. 

There is but one living ex-president of the University. He 
stood at the helm during many of the trying days of this insti- 
tution. I thought that he would be here this morning. I would 
like to pay him the compliment of speaking about him were 
he here. I am glad to mention his name, William T. Reid, faith- 
ful, honest, true, and substantial; a man who had to do with 
the institution in the times when they were hard. 

And while I am here I would like to pay a personal compli- 
ment to the man who has stood at the helm for more than one- 
third of the period of the existence of this institution. Out in 
the glare, facing the wind and the spray, he has kept the ship 
going steadily on along her course; may he live long in that 
position and keep the ship going as she has been going. 

Long live California and Athene, and may the result of this 
union be a happy, strong, and enduring, a just, honest, and 
hardworking lot of young people. 



10 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 



THE LATEST GIFTS TO THE UNIVERSITY 

Leon J. Richaedson 
Associate Professor of Latin, University of California 

The chairman: It has been customary in the past on 
Charter Day to announce the gifts that have been made by the 
generosity of the public during the preceding year, and I call 
upon Professor Richardson to present the list of these gifts at 
this time. 

Professor richardson: Mr. President, Professor Rieber, 
Members of the Faculty, and Students of the University: The 
gifts to the University of California since March, 1917, are as 
follows : 

Regent I. W. Hellman has given $50,000 to endow four 
scholarships for the aid and encouragement each year of four 
needy, deserving, and competent students in the academic 
departments. 

George H. Kraft has bequeathed to the University $50,000 to 
endow the Herbert Kraft Scholarships in the College of Agri- 
culture, 

Dr. Robert Hills Loughridge, Emeritus, late Professor of 
Agricultural Chemistry, bequeathed to the University $3000 to 
endow the Loughridge Scholarship in agriculture. 

Dr. T. Brailsford Robertson has executed a deed giving to 
the University his patent rights in the valuable growth-promoting 
substance "Tethelin," which is of especial value in causing 
obstinate wounds to heal or bones to knit. 

Mrs. Timothy Guy Phelps has bequeathed $35,000 for the 
endowment of a Timothy Guy Phelps Memorial Library, the 
income to be devoted to the purchase of books for a scientific 
library at the Lick Observatory. 

Elizabeth Patterson Mitchell, $30,000, to endow the George 
Ladd Scholarship Fund for students of music. 

Regent Phoebe A. Hearst: $3900, toward further equipment 
of the Hearst Memorial Mining Building ; $1200 for the Hearst 
scholarships for women; in addition to her annual contribution 



GIFTS TO THE UNIVEBSITY 11 

to the Museum of Anthropolgy, $508 for frames and cases for 
the Museum, and various valuable exhibits; $1000 toward the 
salary of the supervising architect. 

Miss Annie M. Alexander, $12,750 for the maintenance of 
the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology during 1917. 

Subscriptions of $1000 per annum each, for five years, for 
the maintenance of the D. O. Mills Expedition to the Southern 
Hemisphere, have been made by William H. Crocker, F. "W. 
Bradley, A. B. Spreckels, Mrs. William H. Crocker, and Ogden 
Mills. Mr. W. B. Bourn and Mr. Gordon Blanding have each 
contributed $1000 for 1917. 

F. W. Bradley, '86, has subscribed $5000 toward the fund 
for the completion and equipment of the new University Hos- 
pital, and given $1000 as his yearly contribution to the Mining 
Students Loan Fund. He has also given a mine rescue outfit 
for the instruction of students in the College of Mining. 

Mrs, James Moffitt has subscribed $10,00 toward the fund 
for the equipment of the new University Hospital, in addition 
to $5000 which she gave toward the building itself. 

Alexander F. Morrison, '78, has given $5000 toward the 
erection and equipment of the new University Hospital in San 
Francisco. 

William Ethelston Furrey of Santa Cruz has bequeathed the 
University $1300 in cash, and real estate valued at approximately 
$2000, with directions that his bequest be used by the Regents 
"as they deem most good." 

The Class of 1917 has given $2000 as a class endowment. 

The Pacific Coast Gas Association has given $4415 in com- 
pletion of its subscription toward instituting a chair of Gas 
Engineering in the University. 

Mr. J. C. Cebrian has given 600 volumes of Spanish books on 
literary and scientific subjects. 

Mrs. George H. Howison has given the books on philosophical 
subjects collected by her husband, consisting of 1235 volumes. 

Mrs. Alexander F. Morrison has given $1500 for the purchase 
of an opthalmological library of 486 volumes as an addition to 
the Medical School Library. 

An alumnus has subscribed $5000 toward the fund for the 
equipment of the new University Hospital in San Francisco. 



12 UNIFEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

Miss Persis H. Coleman and Miss Janet Coleman have given 
$2500 each toward the William Watt Kerr Memorial Fund. 

The Standard Oil Company has presented to the University 
the exhibit which it displayed at the Panama-Pacific Inter- 
national Exposition, valued at $2000. 

J. Louis Mundwyler and Fred Mundwyler of San Francisco 
have given a very extensive collection of chamber music, valued 
•at approximately $1200, to be known as ''The Mundwyler 
Brothers Collection of Chamber Music." 

The Doheny Mexican Commission has given $1200 to pay a 
cataloguer one year to aid in cataloguing the Bancroft Library 
materials on Mexico. 

Mr. Edward I. Doheny has given $1200 to pay an editorial 
assistant for one year to begin work on the publication of a 
series of volumes of documentary materials for western history. 

Senator James D. Phelan has given $1500 for the purpose of 
printing and publishing the papers of the San Francisco Vigi- 
lance Committee of 1851. 

The Joshua Hendy Iron Works, through the courtesy of 
Mr. T. S. O'Brien, has given a 20-ineh Hendy Double-Cone 
Classifier and a 5-foot Callow Cone, as an addition to the equip- 
ment of the ore-dressing laboratory of the College of Mining. 

Mr. R. E. Houghton has given a complete set of the Official 
Records of the Union and Confederate Armies and Navies in the 
War of the Rebellion, comprising 136 volumes, and also eight 
very rare additional volumes, being the History of the Conduct 
of the War, a report of the Congressional Investigation carried 
on during the progress of the Civil War. 

Dr. Edith Brownsill has given $500 as an addition to the 
Alumnae Endowment Fund, placed in the stewardship of the 
Hegents, for the benefit of the University Young Women's 
Christian Association. 

The American Association for the Advancement of Science 
has made a grant of $500 for investigations by Dr. Takeoka 
and members of the faculty of the Department of Pathology 
in regard to the use of taurin in the treatment of tuberculosis. 

Regent William H, Crocker has given $600 for the salary of 
the Research Assistant in Protozoology, to aid in researches 
regarding intestinal parasites. 



GIFTS TO THE UNIVEBSITY 13; 

His Grace, Keverend Edward Hanna, Archbishop of San 
Francisco, has given $250 for the purchase of one of the rarest 
items of early Calif orniana. Father Picolo 's ' ' Inf orme del Estado 
de la Bueva Christiandad de California," printed in Mexico in 
1702. 

The former students of Professor George Holmes Howison 
have planned an endowment of $10,000 for an annual lectureship 
to bear the name of their venerated teacher. Of this sum $7000 
has already been subscribed, and the first Howison Lecture will- 
be given in August of this year. 



RESPONSES OF DELEGATES 



BESPONSES OF DELEGATES 17 



ADDEESS OF THE DELEGATE FROM LELAND 
STANFORD UNIVERSITY 

Acting President Charles David Marks^, B.C.E. 

Professor rieber, chairman : It would have been hard for 
lis indeed if because of these troubled times we had been obliged 
to celebrate our important anniversary entirely alone. Such is 
happily not the case for many of our friends from other insti- 
tutions have come to give added dignity to our festival. 

The majority of those delegates who come from a distance 
will not be here until Saturday. But we are fortunate in having 
some of our invited guests, living not too far away, who come 
with special messages for us. 

It gives me a personal delight, in addition to my official 
position, to greet the representative of our sister University at 
Palo Alto, a man with whom I lived as a neighbor for two 
years, — in the same yard without a fence between us. I often 
think and speak of that as an excellent illustration of the fact 
that science and philosophy can get along admirably together 
if each respects the rights of the other. I shall call upon the 
acting president of Stanford University, Professor Charles David 
Marks. 

Professor charles david marks: Mr. President, Friends 
and Members of the University of California: To this sister 
University about to celebrate its fiftieth year of useful service 
to state and nation Stanford University sends greeting. The 
record of your institution is a source of pride, not only to your 
Regents, your Faculty, your Alumni, but to us also who as 
citizens of the State of California and as members of a sister 
institution have watched your marvelous growth and develop- 
ment. It is true that twenty-six years ago, when Stanford 
University first opened its doors, the state university had already 
established a well earned reputation for the scholarship of its 
faculty. Le Conte, Hesse, Hilgard, Howison, to mention but 
a few, were men who rank with the highest in the country in 
their respective lines of work. To be welcomed by men of such 
attainments when we came to California was indeed a pleasure 



18 UNIVESSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

and a privilege. A hearty welcome awaited us. A welcome 
based on the recognition that the foundation of a sister univer- 
sity would but add to the strength of their own alma mater, 
would but arouse a greater interest in higher education, would 
but increase the number of well trained men and women in 
California prepared to take upon themselves the duties of 
citizenship. This prediction has been fulfilled. The attendance 
at the University of California has increased from seven hun- 
dred to eleven thousand, and that the University has given to 
the state and the nation men and women who realize what they 
owe to both, is shown by the stand taken by them in the nation 's 
hour of need. 

The state institution is a democratic institution. In its hands 
lies the problem of safeguarding democracy. From its doors 
men and women must go forth who not only have learned to 
do something useful, but to do it well ; men and women impressed 
with the responsibility of doing their duty by the state, by the 
nation, yes, and by mankind. 

Tested by these standards your institution has done a 
splendid piece of work, and may look back with pride on the 
accomplishment of her first fifty years. The noble example 
set by your regents, faculty, and students in the past and the 
service rendered by those of you here at present must always 
serve as an inspiration to your successors. 

Accept, therefore, on your fiftieth birthday, the heartiest 
good wishes of Stanford University, and may the State Univer- 
sity of California, the pride of us all, live, flourish, and grow. 



RESPONSES OF DELEGATES 19 

ADDRESS OF THE DELEGATE FROM MILLS COLLEGE 
President Aurelia Henry Reinhardt, B.Litt., Ph.D. 

The chairman : The next person is a representative of a real 
sister college, President Reinhardt of Mills. 

President reinhardt : President Wheeler, Professor Rieber, 
and Guests at this significant birthday party : I am happy to have 
been chosen as the representative of Mills College. I might 
have come not as a delegate but as a daughter traveling home- 
ward with love in her heart and congratulations upon her lips, 
if I may say so, President Wheeler, for her aVmus pater. 

A sister college, Mills may be justly called, as her students 
were working quietly on the Oval beyond the fringe of eucalyp- 
tus trees in Oakland when the first university buildings were 
put up among the oaks of the Berkeley campus. So, as a kins- 
man and a contemporary, Mills has a deep interest in the achieve- 
ments and triumphs of the state's university. 

To this great California institution, which to some of us is 
almost California itself, I bring the greetings most becoming 
that college for women students wherein it is my happiness and 
privilege to work, and from whose sunny gardens I have come 
this morning. 

You have listened to the splendid record of material progress 
here on the campus at Berkeley: buildings, endowments, equip- 
ment. I would call to your attention an inner growth and 
achievement. 

A pioneer in education, among pioneers in the wilderness of 
the far West, this University points back to the days of Marshall 
on Sutter Creek and gold discoveries in the Sierra foothills. 
From simple beginnings it has grown as if by magic. 

Its founders came out of the colleges of New England, filled 
with the belief that youth is to be taught things of the spirit 
as well as things of the mind. Its early purpose was to equip 
students with knowledge and character. 

When the young state demanded citizens professionally 
trained the University added to its departments of letters and 
science, colleges of medicine and law. When agricultural inter- 
ests were to be encouraged an agricultural college was the 
answer. The state needed sur^^eyors, mining and electrical 



20 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

engineers, bridge builders, road makers, and architects, so the 
Unversity prepared departments of engineering, civil, electrical, 
mechanical, and — ^what said some one this morning about oppor- 
tunities in gas engineering? 

New occasions taught new duties as the years passed, and 
recent demands for further technical and vocational training 
have again been met by courses of training designed to prepare 
men for innumerable new callings in a world of changing social 
and industrial conditions. 

In short, the University has served with increasing usefulness 
the people of the state by understanding the needs of the hour 
and supplying trained citizens to answer the hour's need. A 
graduate thinks of the University not merely as a group of 
splendid buildings, not merely as a higher school with a curricu- 
lum embarrassingly rich, nor merely as laboratories, libraries, 
and museums for such as use them. We think of it — our Uni- 
versity, beautiful on the hills above the bay — as that place where 
the ambition and energy of our youth was purposefully trained, 
as that institution where the individual life was given a propul- 
sion toward rightful choice and useful activity. 

What engineer or teacher, farmer or laboratory expert, law- 
yer, or man of business who climbed the steps of North Hall, or 
looked through the Golden Gate from the Library windows can 
deny it? 

Many graduates are absent on this day when the University 
of California attains its half century of age; on the Western 
Front, or beyond the Pacific, under the sea, or in the air, their 
absence testifies better than present words what the University 
of California has taught five decades of men and women. 

Mills College congratulates you. President Wheeler, whose 
privilege it has been to be a teacher and leader of the youth 
of California for a score of happy years. Long may this insti- 
tution under your guidance send forth men to live and fight for 
the right; long may it send forth women capable of availing 
themselves of new world rights and privileges, worthy likewise 
of fulfilling the old world obligations of lighting the sacred fires 
on the altars of home, church, and country ! 

Long live the University of California, light of our great 
commonwealth of California, light also of our greater democracy 
of the United States! 



BESPONSES OF DELEGATES 21 



ADDRESS OF THE DELEGATE FROM THE 
REPUBLIC OF CHINA 

YuNG-Yu Yen, Director of the Educatioal Bureau of 
Chiaoyuptu 

The chairman : At least one of our friends who come from 
a distance to honor our festival is here. Mr. Yen, the special 
representative of the Republic of China, will now tell us how 
the world fares on his side of the ocean. 

Doctor yen: Ladies and Gentlemen: I consider it a great 
honor and privilege to represent the Republic of China at the 
semicentennial celebration of the University of California, and 
to bring congratulations to this University on this great occasion. 

The University of California is one of the best and largest 
universities in the United States and exercises great influence 
in uplifting the morals and standards of the Americans particu- 
larly and of civilization at large. As a Chinese I like to mention 
the fact that the educational value of this University to the 
Chinese is also very great. The students who have studied in 
this University are now doing great work in China. A few 
instances may be interesting to you: one, Mr, Tsen S. Chen, 
the ex-Minister of Agriculture of the Chinese Government, 
and Mr. Tsung Yun Tsang, the ex-Minister of the Department 
of Audit in China; both of these persons were graduates of the 
great University of California, and they have taken a prominent 
part in rendering useful service to China at the present time. 
Through them the work of this University is of great value in 
China, and I think that this is one of the many records you 
may well be proud of. I wish for the continued success of the 
great University of California. 



22 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 



ADDRESS OF THE DELEGATE FROM THE 
UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON 

Henry Suzzallo, Ph.D. 
President of the University of Washington 

The chairman : A letter from the Secretary of the President 
of the University of Washington briefly states that President 
Suzzallo has just left for California and that he does not wish 
to be met, because he has been in Berkeley before and can find 
his way about. I suppose President Suzzallo will also refuse 
to be introduced. 

President suzzaijl.o: Mr. Chairman, President of the Uni- 
versity, Members and Friends of the University: It is a great 
personal pleasure to bring greetings to this great American 
university on the occasion of its fiftieth birthday. It suits me 
that the chairman has not limited my expression to an official 
representation, for my greetings are appreciations, and my 
appreciations are many, both official and personal. 

First, as one of the native born of this State I speak my great 
esteem for an institution of learning which, with its dominating 
intellectual life, has projected, through thousands of its trained 
citizens, its sciences and moralities into the industrial and civic 
affairs of this commonwealth. The University of California has 
been a true state university, elevating the material and spiritual 
conduct of the State's social life. 

Second, as an undergraduate of another and a neighboring 
university, I speak that respect which comes from the rivalries, 
the defeats, and the victories of student life. Thrice in inter- 
collegiate debate have I personally felt in defeat the victorious 
power of the forensic representatives of the University of Cali- 
fornia and learned to respect the institution which trained those 
who administered the whipping. 

Third, I can also speak as one who has been, for a short while 
at least, a graduate student member of this University. I have 
known the vision of its teachers and their power to encompass 
truth. 



BESPONSES OF DELEGATES 23 

And last, it is permitted me to bring greetings from the State 
of Washington and its chief educational institution, the University 
of Washington. We appreciate the University of Calfomia for 
it has given to the far western institutions of higher learning a 
splendid example of that balance between a pointed, professional 
efficiency and that liberalizing humanism which is required to 
keep us practically sound. The campus of this University has 
overlapped our University and many others. Wherever former 
students live and do their work, there is to be found a bit of 
the college campus. Wherever men go they carry the spirit of 
alma mater. They are the carriers of the values, the principles, 
and the methods for which the University stands. 

My appreciation of the American university has always been 
large, but never larger than now. Once I had thought that 
the contribution of the common schools might be more significant 
than that of the colleges, I have come to revise that estimate, 
and to believe that the American college is really the supreme 
educational contribution to our democratic life. 

A democracy requires picked leadership as well as common 
appreciation, and we have learned through our present crisis 
the college man's amazing capacity for shouldering the heavy 
loads of a great emergency. He has put aside his play and his 
light-heartedness, asserted his devotion to fundamental values, 
and taken upon his youthful shoulders the ardent and sacrificial 
defense of his country and his civilization. It is thoroughly 
consistent with our democratic tradition that our university 
men, our best educated, should be its most responsive defenders. 
No one can fail to glory in the part of this University once he 
has beheld its brood of eaglets fleeing into world strife for the 
protection of liberty and justice. 

As one from a sister institution, I once more express my 
appreciative greetings to this University. Long live the Univer- 
sity of California, and long live the University of Washington's 
hearty appreciation of the achievements of the University of 
California. 



DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 




SATHER TOWER 



DEDICATOBY ADDBESSES 2T 



DEDICATION OF THE JANE K. SATHER TOWER 

Address by President Benjamin Ide Wheeler 

We are assembled here today to dedicate the Sather Tower. 
Mrs, Sather was a very practical minded person. During the 
later years of her life she found a way to use money as she 
believed humanly useful. She began by setting apart a building 
in Oakland, the value of which on her death should be given 
in part to certain persons, and the remainder for the foundation 
of a professorship in the University. That building rose greatly 
in value. When she gave it in trust it had a value, she supposed,, 
of $150,000. It was finally disposed of for $400,000, and as that 
amount grew the tower went up, for there was a provision also 
in another act of hers for the building of this tower. 

Her gifts to the University represent, as I said, moneys which 
accumulated during the last twelve years of her life, and which 
she set aside religiously for University purposes. The following 
are her gifts to the University. The endowment of a Chair of 
History, thus far amounting to $105,000; certain other moneys 
due to be added to that so that the value of it shall be counted 
at about $120,000. The Classical Chair fund which is estimated 
to be $120,000. With the Historical Chair endowment goes a 
Library Fund endowment of $12,000. Her interest in history 
resulted in still another fund of $10,000. The Law Library fund 
$21,000. This Campanile, this tower — as it is properly called 
the Sather Tower — cost something of a few thousand dollars over 
$200,000. The Esplanade, which is provided here, cost $39,000. 
The bells for which she provided $23,000 have thus far cost 
considerably less than that. At any rate her gifts total about 
$580,000. She was a plain, practical woman. I saw her a great 
deal during the last years of her life, and while she seemed 
to select things which were representative of vision, she was 
humanly practical. She thought that this tower was better as 
a memorial than granite piled up in a burial ground, and she 
expressed herself very definitely on that point. A few days 



28 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

before she died the Sather Gate — ^which was also her gift, that 
cost about $40,000 — stood there practically a memorial to her. 
She said to me that she thought it best that that gate should 
be a memorial to Mr. Sather, and she thought this would be a 
good memorial for her, for she said, ' ' I shall have no monument 
in any graveyard. ' ' It represents in its character the University. 
Its idealism, reaching down to the depth of fires, spurns with its 
foot the ground which it arises out of, and without mediation 
springs into the Empyrean, into the fire of the eternal. 

These verses written by Edward Kobson Taylor express better 
than any prose the ode of this monument. 

ODE TO THE SATHER CAMPANILE* 

Edward Eobeson Taylor 

I 

Above the noise and tumult of the day 

Thou risest to the silences of heaven, 

A glorious thing from even unto even, 
A beauty's vision fading not away. 
It must have been a more than blessed dream, 

"When all the feelings rose conjointly wise 
Against the glamour of some worldly scheme. 

That moved her heart to raise thee to the skies, 
Where thou in all thy veins of steel and stone 

With Aspiration's purest blood shall thrill. 
As evermore around thee shall be sown 

The seeds of Learning and of Righteous Will, 

And back of thee the radiant, everlasting hill. 

II 

Gigantic flower thou, whose beauty beams 
With unimagined loveliness of Art, 
Of all the campus blossoming the heart 

And sublimated essence of its dreams; 

Giving the fragrance of unwonted blooms 
In many a far-away, delightsome dell, 



* Dedicated to Benjamin Ide Wheeler, President of the University, 
March 23, 1915. 



DEDICATOBY ADDBESSES 29 

Or where the cypress builds her heavy glooms, 
Or e'en where mild-eyed fairies love to dwell; 

Where books disclose their magic-working lore, 
And cast their cunning lures for stumbling feet, 

"While sweets as strange as life their joyance pour, 
Till all the moments in one round complete 
Within the arms of Concord pleasurably meet. 

Ill 

The fateful hours of the passing day 

From thee shall ever musically peal. 

And through the somnolence of night shall steal, 
Till lost in whispering echoes far away. 
Perpetual guardian thou, whose tongue shall tell 

The lesson learnt in Indolence's bowers, 
When idle thoughts the idle bosom swell. 

And Time unreaped its wretched prey devours. 
Yet shall they bells of ever-present cheer 

Hearten the struggle of laborious souls. 
And Trade herself will turn a listening ear. 

As she pursues her daily myriad goals. 

When mid her roar thy golden voice the minute tolls. 

IV 

With hoary-headed Time a friend thou 'It be, 

And play with years as with fresh-hearted things 
As thy emblazoned crest forever springs 

Into the wondering air divinely free. 

Here shall ambitious youth its vans wide spread 
For flights beyond the rosiest dreams of hope; 

Or if perchance on indolences fed 

With adverse circumstance it fails to cope, 

The sight of thee upsoaring lone and high, 
With Aspiration as thy soul and seal, 

And Admonition blazing in thine eye, 

Will rouse it like a battle's trumpet peal 

To every glorious thrill Achievement dares to feel. 



30 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

V 

So firmly dost thou grip the rocky ground, 

Thy beauteous form the earthquake might assail, 
And storms upon thee all their fury hail, 

Yet seathless at the last thou wouldst be found. 

Still thou dost seem the airiest of things. 
With lofty crest which glitters in the air. 

That blooms by day a flower, with radiant wings, 
At night a beacon shining starlike there. 

So ever may the men and women here 
Foundationed be in nobleness of soul. 

Unshaken by the raging storms of fear, 
A shining light for every worthy goal. 
Undaunted by life's waves however mad they roll. 

VI 

Thy roots strike deeper than the claws of steel, 
And bolts and bonds that hold thee in thy place, 
For those are deep as universal space. 

And wide as ever longing we can feel : 

They reach the great ideals that ever blaze 
Around the empurpled summits of desire. 

Until as conquering Gods we bless our days 
With nurturing breath of their eternal fire ; 

They stimulate the weary and the weak 

To march still onward though the road be hard. 

And Difficulty's crown rejoice to seek 

Though every passageway be doubly barred. 

And watchful dragons stand relentless on their guard. 

VII 

Symbol of Truth, thou ever-precious one ; 

Thy winged word speaks from thy columned stone 
With voice as clear as that of some dim, lone. 

Ice-crowned peak far reaching to the sun. 

It wakes our bosom's golden-hearted lyre. 
Until in music of seraphic strain 



DEDICATOBT ADDBESSES 31 

It lifts our thoughts from every low desire 

Up to the wisdom of celestial gain; 
And may thy bells ring out in clarion sound 

Truth's sacred gospel to the willing breeze, 
Till all this place in rightness be renowned, 

And till adventuring youth in season sees 

What is Life's vital wine, and what its worthless lees. 

VIII 

Beauty breathed gratefulness when thou wert planned: 

She saw herself in brilliancy anew. 

Until from steel and stone there nobly grew 
A marvelous thing transfiguring the land. 
She saw her child as with immortal breath 

Swell to the roots with heaven-approving pride, 
As he who drew thy lines beyond all death 

In triumph stood serenely by thy side. 
The Muse had roamed the chambers of his soul, 

"Where domes and towers of song were glad to be. 
And there he saw thee as his perfect goal, 
In all the splendors of thy high degree, 

Thy inexpressible, divine simplicity. 

IX 

Thou ceaseless monitor of worthy deeds, 

We greet thee here as some familiar friend, 

Who blessing gives us that can have no end. 
And all ennoblement forever breeds. 
Imagination sees upon thy sides 

The golden names of those that never die; 
With those rare ones that hid their latent prides, 

Yet did their work that others raised on high; 
With these thy stones in living glory blaze. 

Thy column seems to pierce the vaulted skies, 
And as we longer and the longer gaze, 

A reverential incense seems to rise 

And wreath itself in hallowed words of holy praise. 



32 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 



ADDRESS OF IVAN MORTIMEE LINFORTH, M.A., Ph.D. 

Associate Professor of Greek, University of California 

President wheeler: I call upon Professor Ivan M. Lin- 
forth to speak on behalf of the Faculty. 

Professor linforth : This tower was not built to serve any- 
immediate and pressing need. Towers are never built to serve 
any immediate and pressing need. Indeed, one seldom feels an 
immediate need for a tower. There are things, however, which 
are made to serve some quick and vital purpose when they are 
conceived. The beauty of such things lies rather in the utility 
which they possess, in the aptness which they reveal, the 
requirements for which they are made. Socrates could call a 
good dustpan a beautiful dustpan. Dustpans and such things 
which are made for a useful purpose may indeed be made with 
a fine sense of form and quality. They may be decorated and 
embellished and so made beautiful, but they do not exist 
primarily to be beautiful and the artist who makes them in 
executing them finds that his hand is not free to do that which 
he likes, but what he must. There are things which, however, 
are made without any pressing need. They are not made to 
serve any useful purpose ; such things are pictures and statuary. 
The beauty of these things is of another sort from the beauty 
of things made to serve some purpose. They create a very real 
need, and the mind feeling this need is concerned with a force 
which is never felt for other objects. Among such things as these 
is the tower at whose foot we stand. It was constructed for an 
ideal purpose rather than for some immediate utility. Not all 
of you will perhaps realize what this means, what this tower 
means to us. You must live with this tower, you must go back 
and forth day by day and brush against its huge side in order 
to know what this tower means to us. You must look at it from 
beyond the eucalyptus trees. You must catch a glimpse of it 
between the branches of the oaks of the faculty glades ; you must 
see it down the vistas as we go along, and out of the hollows 
of the hills, and you must see it with a wreath of fog about its 



DEDICATORY ADDBE88E8 33 

security, which seems to divide the upper part and the heavens 
from its foot ; and you must see it pink in the sunset light, and 
you must see it ghostly and insubstantial against the black sky 
at night. In all these ways and many more you will understand 
what it means to us. You will understand it stands here as a 
solace to us; and not only that but as we here today dedicate 
this tower to our own delight and service, we also realize that 
we are dedicating it to the eternal usefulness of the California 
men and California women who are yet to come. 



34 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 



ADDRESS OF JOHN L. REITH 

FOE THE 

ASSOCIATED STUDENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY 

President wheeler : Generations will pass on through these 
buildings that we erect here. The buildings do not pass through 
the generations. Subservient to their use the generations pass 
through them. They enter them, use them, and they go. But 
this tower under which we stand will see the generations passing, 
passing, hundreds, and perhaps thousands of them. We who 
are here now for only a little while, — committed to the care of 
those who are likely to be here longer, the present students of this 
University who represent the life, will now speak: Mr. John L, 
Reith, President of the Associated Students of the University of 
California. 

Mr. REITH: President Wheeler, why should a student speak 
here today? Why should we have anything to say about 
the dedication of that massive piece of granite? I think there 
is a tremendous reason why we should. As I try to look a long 
way out and look in from a long way out I can see that we are 
in a period of transition. We are passing from the old to the 
new. Granite is replacing wood, and as we pass from the old to 
the new I am afraid we are apt to lose those very things which 
are indispensable to a university. I am afraid that we will lose 
sight of those things that are endeared to the hearts of every 
member of a student body of a university. I am afraid that we 
will lose those very things which exist in order that the alumni and 
the university may love one another, I mean that in passing from 
the old to the new we are apt to lose our traditions. Old North 
Hall is gone: that was a tradition. The freshman-sophomore 
push ball game contest is gone: that was a tradition. South 
Hall will go soon : that is a tradition. We need those traditions, 
and that is what I mean when I say that in passing from the 
old to the new we are apt to lose traditions ; and as our graduates 
go out from this University they have those feelings which they 
have gained as a result of their four years of undergraduate life 



DEDICATORY ADDBESSES 35 

in the University. It is an intangible feeling, but it is a feeling 
which grows upon you, which makes you realize as you leave 
your university, that you know something about it. It makes 
you think that you have absorbed something in your under- 
graduate life that will allow you to come back here years hence 
and be glad to be back on the university grounds. That is the 
binding result of tradition, and as we look back over those old 
traditions which have gone we must find new traditions. We 
have to have these new things; we have let progress take the 
place of traditions, for it is necessary that we keep along with 
the inevitable tide of human advancement, and for the sake of 
that tradition has taken a backward stand, but now why can 't we 
start in anew? Why can't we be constructive? Why can't we 
build up new traditions? I believe that around this Sather 
Tower we have a glorious opportunity to build up new tradi- 
tions. I believe we could make this a part of our undergraduate 
life. I would like to see rolls end at the Campanile as they used 
to end on the old football ground, and I would like to see the 
class serpentine down from the Greek Theatre and stop here, 
and as the Campanile bells toll out ' * All Hail ' ' I would like to see 
the undergraduate student body join in as a fitting climax of 
the roll. I would like to see the bells of the tower toll out in 
the different hymns of the colleges the result of our big inter- 
collegiate contests, baseball, track, or any intercollegiate contest 
we may be interested in. If it is on their grounds I would like 
to see the students standing out here with eyes turned up there 
at half past four in the afternoon, looking for "All Hail" if 
we win, or ' ' Hail, Stanford, Hail " if we lose, I believe in that 
way of building up traditions around this tower. I would like 
to see that done, and I think by doing that we would create a 
new tradition. It would be a permanent, bigger, and better 
California spirit. 



36 UNirUBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

President wheeler: I want to read again one stanza from 
the verses that I read as we began. 

VII 

Symbold of Truth, thou ever-precious one; 

Thy winged word speaks from thy columned stone 

With voice as clear as that of some dim, lone. 
Ice-crowned peak far reaching to the sun. 
It wakes our bosom's golden-hearted lyre, 

Until in music of seraphic strain 
It lifts our thoughts from every low desire 

Up to the wisdom of celestial gain; 
And may thy bells ring out in clarion sound 

Truth 's sacred gospel to the willing breeze, 
Till all this place in rightness be renowned. 

And till adventuring youth in season sees 

What is Life's vital wine, and what its worthless lees. 

VIII 

Beauty breathed gratefulness when thou wert planned: 

She saw herself in brilliancy anew, 

Until from steel and stone there nobly grew 
A marvelous thing transfiguring the land. 
She saw her child as with immortal breath 

Swell to the roots with heaven-approving pride. 
As he who drew thy lines beyond all death 

In triumph stood serenely by thy side. 
The Muse had roamed the chambers of his soul. 

Where domes and towers of song were glad to be. 
And there he saw thee as his perfect goal. 
In all the splendors of thy high degree. 

Thy inexpressible, divine simplicity. 

IX 

Thou ceaseless monitor of worthy deeds. 

We greet thee here as some familiar friend. 
Who blessing gives us that can have no end, 

And all ennoblement forever breeds. 



DEDICATOBT ADDRESSES 37 

Imagination sees upon thy sides 

The golden names of those that never die ; 
With those rare ones that hid their latent prides, 

Yet did their work that others raised on high ; 
"With these thy stones in living glory blaze, 

Thy column seems to pierce the vaulted skies, 
And as we longer and longer gaze, 

A reverential incense seems to rise 

And wreath itself in hallowed words of holy praise. 

Now let the bells ring out. 

The chimes master played a selection from Beethoven's Ninth 
Symphony. 



38 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 



ADDRESSES AT THE SATHER TOWER FOLLOWING 

THE MILITARY REVIEW AND PARADE 

ON THE CAMPUS 

Friday, March the twenty-second 

President wheeler: We are assembled here today in the 
name of and by the symbol of force, organized force for the pro- 
tection of society and the things we hold highest in our lives. 
Right is it that you should have assembled yourselves here under 
the Tower that speaks for the meaning of the University, the 
idealism of university thought and life. Here at its base we 
stand firm. All that the University is or hopes to be is com- 
mitted now and given now into the well expressed form of the 
army and navy of the United States. This war will be in some 
sense, and a very real sense, decided by the universities. More 
and more men are coming to them to ask their aid, not only 
through the forms and practices of science, but through the 
personal leadership of men from the universities who are gifted 
therein. 

Colonel Mervin Maus, representing the Western Department 
of the United States Army, will be the first speaker of the day. 



DEDICATOBY ADDBESSES 39 



ADDRESS OF COL. MERVIN MAUS, U.S.A. 

My friends, I do not believe that had I been asked a year 
ago to select a subject or a place or a clime, I could have been 
more fortunate than I am today in coming before this splendid 
aggregation here at the University of California, in one of the 
most beautiful states in the world, under the most favorable 
conditions. 

I come to address you on a subject that has been very close 
to my heart for the many years that I have followed the flag, 
across the Pacific and over the plains, during the last forty 
years of my military experience. I know of no emotion so 
proper that a nation may be imbued with as that of the national 
spirit of patriotism. Unless a nation is filled with patriotism 
that nation is bound to pass down the high road of decadence, 
and finally of subjugation by some powerful neighbor who is 
filled with the military spirit. If you are inclined to doubt the 
truth of this statement it is only necessary for you to turn 
back to the pages of history, and you will find that for the last 
thousands of years, it is recorded there that whenever a nation 
has lost its military spirit, its patriotism, that nation sinks into 
insignificance and disappears from the face of the earth. 

Since the great Civil War of 1861 the patriotic spirit in 
America has slumbered. In fact during the 80s and 90s it had 
gotten to such a low ebb that it was almost impossible in this 
country to find people who reverenced the Stars and Stripes. 
You remember that a very few years ago, even, the Stars and 
Stripes scarcely ever decorated the buildings throughout our 
great republic. In fact, there were very few people able to 
repeat the beautiful and sentimental lines found in '^The Star 
Spangled Banner, ' ' and I remember that there were even fewer 
who could carry the air of the most magnificent national anthem 
that has ever been written in the history of the world. Just 
in passing, I might tell you that in 1891 in coming back from 
Europe on one of the great liners on which there were a number 
of English people and foreigners, an Englishman wagered that 



40 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

there was not an American aboard who could repeat the first 
stanza of "The Star Spangled Banner," and he won his wager, 
although I do remember that as the ship made her way in 
toward the Bartholdi Statue of Liberty in the harbor of New 
York one lady had the patriotic spirit and stood out boldly on 
the fore deck and sang that beautiful poem telling of the nearly 
broken heart of its author, and of his joy when he saw the Star 
Spangled Banner still gleaming the next morning after that 
eventful night. But now, my friends, things have changed. I 
am happy to say that the day has passed when a man found 
in uniform is discredited on the streets of this country. For I 
remember distinctly, looking back over my long service, when 
the men in uniform were discredited not only on the streets in 
our cities but were even refused admittance in many of the places 
of public entertainment. Some of you doubtless remember that. 
But thank God, there has been an awakening; that awakening 
has come since the Spanish American "War, and it is now an 
honor and a great privilege for a man to don the uniform of 
the United States and to fight for the Stars and Stripes, 

It is my opinion that in no place in the wide, wide world 
can patriotism be better or more thoroughly inculcated into 
Young America than at our great universities. And right here, 
under the shadow of this magnificent monument, we see faces 
of men who are determined and who are filled with that great 
spirit that actuated our leaders, such men as George Washington 
and U, S, Grant, as well as such men as Robert E. Lee, and 
Stonewall Jackson, and the other great Americans who took up 
the cause which they thought just and offered their very lives 
for it. 

It gives me great pleasure, my friends, to be with you this 
afternoon. I want to say that, as an old veteran of three or 
four wars, I hope every man of you will carry in his inmost 
heart one single dream, — ^that liberty may possibly result only 
from the sacrifice of your lives. But I think there is no cause 
before the American people or the world today that could better 
justify every one of us baring our breasts to the enemy and 
going over and fighting the greatest evil that has ever been 
known on the face of the earth. And I congratulate you all 
here today that you have enlisted in the service of our great 



DEDICATOSY ADDBESSES 41 

old Uncle Sam, whose men are gathering from the east and from 
the west, from the north and from the south, and who are going 
into this fight to the end that every man, no matter how humble 
in life or how high, no matter what his circumstances are may- 
have that which belongs to him as a God given right. 



42 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 



ADDRESS OF CAPTAIN ROBERT RUSSELL, U.S.N. 

PREsroENT WHEELER: An institution which, like this, looks 
out through the Golden Gate upon the portentous Pacific, can- 
not fail to have an interest in sea power, as guarantor of the 
security and permanence of our lives. As representative of that 
power I introduce to you Captain Robert Russell, Commandant 
of the Twelfth Naval District. 

President wheeler, alumni and students of the univer- 
sity OF CALIFORNIA, AND FELLOW GUESTS: I am glad to be here 
today to take part in this splendid ceremony which brings 
together so many patriotic Americans whose hearts are bound in 
the cause which we are now undertaking. The first thing which 
we must think of, and practically the only thing, my friends of 
the army and navy, is the winning of the war. We will win 
this war (applause), and our whole soul must be wrapped up 
in it. 

Less than one year ago this country declared war on Ger- 
many. At that time our navy had few officers and few men,, 
compared with the requirements of the occasion. Immediate 
steps were taken to increase the numbers of both. Today, after 
less than one year, the number of officers has been increased 
by several thousand, and the men by hundreds of thousands. 
And I should like to take this occasion to thank the University 
of California for the assistance which it has given us in the 
training of officers. Right here in this grand university there 
are today extension classes for naval preparation, for service 
in the navy. And seventy-two of my naval reserves that have 
been enrolled here are now taking this course. 

I want also to tell you that some of the young men who less 
than a year ago went from this very university, are now on 
torpedo boat destroyers off the coast of England and the coast 
of France, as officers of the United States Navy. And those 
young men, all honor to them, have been advanced by their 
own sheer merit, without influence of any kind whatsoever. 



DEDICATOBY ADDBESSES 43 

It may interest you to know that our system of training and 
our means of acquiring officers is a progressive one. The young 
men come in — and every one who has come into the navy has 
come in as a volunteer — in the lower grades, because they have 
not had the naval experience which would enable them to enroll 
in the higher grades, and by their own efforts work up and are 
placed in the officers' material class, and later into the officers' 
class; and then, by these competitive examinations they are 
enrolled as officers, some of them finally even getting intensive 
training at Annapolis. And I wish to tell you young men within 
the sound of my voice that the opportunities for service in the 
navy were never as good as today. Promotion awaits every 
young man who merits it. His own merit and his own exertions 
will take him up, regardless of influence. 

I wish also to tell you that the doors are still open. We need 
men, we need officers, and we welcome those who come. I feel 
that it is not necessary to say that now is the time, for if our 
country ever needed the service of its sons it does today. And 
I hope that this grand university will continue to help us in 
the supply. 

The record made by the Twelfth Naval District has been a 
fine one. Our young men who have gone east have shown up 
well in all places alongside the picked men of all sections of 
our common country. 

Let each of you who has joined the colors bear in mind that 
you not only represent your country, but that you represent 
your locality, that you represent your college or your university, 
or wherever it may be whence you have come ; and let those that 
come from the University of California bear in mind that their 
instructors, their professors, as well as the officers under whom 
they serve, are watching their careers, and hope that they will 
write their names high on the roll of honor as the representatives 
of the University of California. 



ADDRESSES BY MEN OF THE UNIVERSITY 

OF CALIFORNIA FACULTY IN 

MILITARY SERVICE 



DEBICATOEY ADDRESSES 45 



ADDRESS OF DR. HERBERT C. MOFFITT 

Mr. president, and men of the united states army and* 
NAVY : I am sorry that, for the present, I am no longer a major, 
but merely a poor dean in one of the departments of the- 
University. 

It is always a pleasant duty to answer the call of the Uni- 
versity. It is a great honor today to represent her, even in the 
humblest way. The spirit of the professional schools, from^ 
which I am today asked to bring you a few words of greeting,, 
is the same spirit that animates every man in our University,, 
whether he be freshman or graduate student, alumnus or teacher.. 
We have all learned anew the lessons as to the finer meanings- 
of responsibility and of duty. And there is only one questioa 
in the minds of every one of us today : ' ' How best may I serve ? ' ' 

The great war has brought a few problems to medical men.. 
When nations are sick, they are much like sick individuals ; when 
truly sick, they call loudly for the doctor, and when well, they 
promptly forget all about him. In England the military com- 
mission made so many demands upon the medical profession that 
civil practice and the medical schools have suffered grievously. 
In our own country over 17,000 medical men are in duty in 
the Medical Corps, and thousands of others are serving on draft 
boards, on advisory boards, on various commissions. Our medi- 
cal students have been drafted in the Sanitary Corps and sent 
back to various schools for training. So that the medical schools 
of the country today may be said to be really navy and army 
medical schools. 

What is our medical school doing in the work of medicine, 
in connection with the war ? Thirty-five members of our faculty 
are in active service, among them are many on their way to 
France as members of Base Hospital 30, the base hospital of 
our University. Others remain at the school to teach, very much 
against their will, and they simply remain there because it is 
their duty so to do. Others are teaching army medical men wha 
have been detailed by the Surgeon-General to the universities for 



46 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENAB7 

special work in surgery. Still others are actively engaged in 
research, which is closely connected with many medical prob- 
lems of the war. 

Many of our alumni are on duty in cantonments or in 
connection with commissions. Many of our nurses are in active 
service abroad. And our students, with their new responsibilities 
well in mind, are tackling their work with an earnestness that 
augurs well for the new plan of the Surgeon General. 

We are confident that our men and our women are going 
to be of full measure, no matter where they go. There is a 
wonderful work everywhere to do. We must no longer regret 
that we were not wholly prepared when the call for us came. 
We must waste no more time in quibbling over mistakes that 
have been made. A tremendous lot of army work has been 
done, and a splendid military organization is rapidly reaching 
perfection. You men are teaching a great lesson as well as 
preparing for a great work to do. We feel strongly that your 
lesson is going to be exactly as important as your work. We feel 
strongly that we must all stand together, men of the universities, 
men of the army, and men of the navy, and insist that the 
healthy body and disciplined mind that goes through military 
training must endure in our nation. 

I bring you words of greeting from our professional schools, 
and I can assure you that the professions of law and medicine 
can appreciate the tremendous value that must come to our 
nation from the proper discipline that comes always through 
the proper kind of military and naval training. 



DEDICATOBY ADDBESSE8 47 



ADDRESS OF CAPTAIN A. J. EDDY, OP THE 
COAST ARTILLERY 

President wheeler : I call upon Capt. A. J. Eddy. 

Soldiers and sailors, fellow-members of the faculty, and 
FRIENDS: Our President has asked me to speak this afternoon 
about the University men in the service. This is a very large 
subject. I shall not attempt to go into the many phases of mili- 
tary service in which our university men find themselves today, 
but I shall attempt to tell you of a few things which seem most 
important about university men in the service of the army and 
navy, as I view it. 

A large percentage of the university men are now commis- 
sioned in the service, and that, it seems to me, is the place where 
they belong. They have a superior training, they have been 
fitted by education and instruction to hold commissions. There 
are some, it is true, who have not yet been commissioned, who 
are serving as enlisted men in the army and navy, but I feel 
sure that, as time goes on, more and more of them will be com- 
missioned in the service. 

When the United States Army and the United States Navy 
were first expanded there were four classes of men from which 
to draw to make officers. In the first place, we had the West 
Pointers and the graduates from the Naval Academy. Then we 
had the National Guard officers, who were drafted into service. 
Then we had the non-commissioned officers, who were promoted 
to commissioned ranks. Finally, we had the civilians who were 
commissioned into the service through training camps or by 
other means. 

I believe the majority of the university men have gone into 
the service through the agency of the training camps. There 
are some, of course, who elected to enter the service before war 
was declared. There are some who were officers in the National 
Guard. But I believe the majority have gone into the service 
from training camps. 



48 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

The duties which devolve upon an officer in the United States 
Army or Navy are probably more complex and varied than any 
which ever devolve upon men in civil life. In the first place^ 
the officer must be a manager of men. If he is not a manager^ 
he is not an officer. He must also be an instructor. He must 
also be a leader. As a manager he must look after the personal 
comforts of his men, he must see that they are properly clothed, 
properly fed, that they have a good place in which to sleep. 
He must look after their finances. He makes out their pay-rolls. 
He often sends their money to their dependents and relatives. 
As an instructor, he must be a professor of military science, if 
you please. He must be able to teach the men their proper 
duties. A commanding officer, particularly officers of the grade 
of captain or above, is responsible for the training of his par- 
ticular organization. He must be certain that every man in his 
organization knows his duties. He must be certain that, when 
the time comes, each man will know his place. Then, under the 
subject of "instructions," he must develop a spirit among his 
men, a spirit of camaraderie, a morale which will make them 
act together as a unit. He must make every man strive to do 
his utmost to make his organization, his troop, his company, his 
battery, the best one in the regiment. And if he can make every 
man in his organization part of the company he is in, if he is 
striving to do his best for that company, he need have no worry 
about how he is going to act when the final, supreme test comes. 
Lastly, he must be a leader, he must be able to lead his men in 
battle. 

It is difficult to say which one of the three things is most 
to be desired in an officer. If he is not a manager, if he does not 
care for the personal wants and comforts of his men, they won't 
fight for him, they will be discontented. If he is unable to 
instruct them, they will not know what to do when the proper 
time comes. And if he is not able to lead them, they will scatter 
over the field of battle, and will waste their strength inefficiently. 

It seems to me that the university man, and you men who 
are training to be officers, are getting at the universities of the 
country a kind of training which peculiarly fits you to be officers 
in the United States Army. And in some branches it is abso- 
lutely essential that a man have a university training. Take the 



DEDICATORY ADDBESSES 49 

artillery. You cannot teach a man to be an artillery officer in 
three months or six months. He must have a foundation of 
technical education. Napoleon has said that God fights on the 
side of the heavy artillery. And this war has demonstrated that 
more than any war in history. 

And so I say the university men are particularly equipped 
for doing the duties as officers in the army and navy of the 
United States. "We are going to win. We are going to win 
because, in the first place, we are on the right side. General 
Grant, after the battle of Bull Run, and when things looked 
pretty gloomy for the United States, was asked by a fellow officer 
if he thought the North would ever win the struggle, and he 
said, ''"We must win." And that is the spirit today. We must 
win. And I feel sure that after the victory has been won, a 
great measure of that will be due to the university men of the 
United States. 



50 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 



ADDRESS OF SAYRE MacNEILL 

ALUMNUS 

President wheeler : Colleague of our Ralph Merritt in the 
Food Administration — our Sayre MacNeill. 

Mr, president, ladies and gentlemen: I speak not of 
armies or of the men that wield arms, but of those allotted to 
the grayer and duller side of national warfare, the men engaged 
in the civilian service. The place of the civilian serving in this 
war is different from what it has been in any other war. For 
the old wars were, for the most part, wars of armed forces, and 
the war in which we are now engaged is a war of organized 
nations. So it has become a truism to say that it is an essential 
part of national warfare that certain of us should see that the 
military arm is upheld and made most effective, first, by material 
things, like money and food and munitions, and also by less 
tangible but important things, such as keeping up and main- 
taining the unity, the cheerfulness, and the firmness of loyal 
purposes among all of us that the troop ships leave behind. 

Many times we who are serving in the civilian service will 
look upon you men in uniform with the greatest envy. Because 
for you the paths of duty and of honor run straight and clear. 
And I can assure you that the voice of the cannon is clear 
and loud and certain as compared with the manifold, divergent 
voices of wheat or ships or bonds and the things that are 
associated with them. You can see the effect of your work as 
you go along. You can count your successes in numbers of 
the enemy killed, wounded or captured, in guns, or square miles 
taken. In most of the civilian branches it is not so. Whether 
it be work in connection with ship building or the control of 
railroads or Red Cross work, or the Liberty Loan work, or the 
Food Administration work, or whatever it may be, it is hard 
work indeed to walk straight and keep your eye on the main 
points of the business in hand, to hold a straight course among 
doubts and varied counsels. And it is in this connection that 
we, who are engaged in civilian work, it seems to me, must learn 
certain lessons from you, and learn them thoroughly and 
promptly. And the particular lessons that we must learn from 
the military men are two : first, the habit of putting implicit and 



DEDICATOBT ADDBESSES 51 

ready confidence in our leaders, and secondly, the absolute will- 
ingness to take orders. For without those two things, as I see it, 
our civilian service in this way cannot accomplish what it should. 
And it will not, without those two things, constitute real service. 

Many a man, in volunteering for civilian work of any kind, 
has run across very much the same problem, and come very 
near making the same mistake as was made, or so nearly made 
in very ancient times by Naaman, the leper. Naaman, as you 
all remember, went to a great prophet regarding the healing of 
his body. The prophet gave him specific orders, and bade him 
wash seven times in the river Jordan. Now, Naaman, as many 
of us have done under an analogous situation, hesitated, and 
commenced to want to argue that out, and ask why, and he came 
very nearly dropping the enterprise in which he was engaged, 
or failing in it, on account of doubts and difficulties. One of 
his servants finally said to him, ' ' If the prophet had bidden you 
to do some great task, some hard or difficult thing, something 
spectacular, you would have done it. How much more, then, 
when he asks you to do something simple, easy, should you do it. ' ' 

That same proposition comes up to many of us engaged in 
civilian activities. And why? It is when the civilian seeks 
to get from his soul an unrest which exists in it on account of 
any inaction at a time like this, that he goes to the leader or the 
prophet, either in connection with ships or Liberty Loans or 
Red Cross, or the Food Administration, or whatever it may be, 
and he offers himself for orders. When those orders come — and 
they come to every one of us, in one form or another, to every 
man, woman and child in the civilian population — when those or- 
ders come, it is frequently the case that we are disappointed in 
what they are. We have volunteered our services. It would be 
very nice to be a prima donna in one of those great activities. It 
might be very interesting to be assigned for duty at Washington 
or in France, or wherever it might be. That is all well and good. 
But it is not so spectacular or so interesting when the orders are 
something entirely different, when the orders are, "Stay where 
you are, in your home. Do your work there. Keep up your 
profession. Give it, say, a third or half your time, and centralize 
the rest of your time on this specific war work right here in your 
own home. ' ' Then is the time when every one of us must remem- 



52 VNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

ber and must get this lesson from our military arm, and we 
must learn it thoroughly, to take the work from our leaders when 
they tell us what we are to do, and to do that thing. 

In connection with the food work particularly, it has often 
seemed to me that if Mr. Hoover, for example, were to call upon 
us to do a great and spectacular work, if he should come out 
some morning and say, "Wanted, for the safety of this nation, 
ten million men, women, and children, who will swear that they 
will not touch food, for a week," that if so much were asked of 
us, we would find many people with the spirit of the ancient 
martyrs, ready and willing to half starve themselves, and make 
an intensely great sacrifice, whereas the same ones of us who 
would be willing to do that and remember about doing that, find 
it practically impossible to remember from day to day specific 
little orders, such as not eating wheat at the evening meals. The 
simple assignment of duty done right near home, according to 
orders given us, believing in the people who give those orders, 
the performance of these tasks promptly, tactfully, without 
sound or fury, these offer a very rich field for the university 
man to throw his full weight into the scale. 

And that is what I sincerely and seriously believe we are 
doing. And whether a man in this civilian work is helping to 
solve the shipping problems with a Prentiss Gray or a Jack 
Fletcher or a Plummer at the Atlantic seaboard, or whether he 
is doing that work out here with our Ralph Merritt, or whether 
he is helping to solve the new problems of railroad control with 
our Brookmans and our Thelens, or whether the man is putting 
in his time endeavoring to synchronize, as best he may, the 
mighty forces of employers and employees toward a joint end, 
as our dear friend Carl Parker was doing practically with his 
last breath — ^whatever line of this work we are engaged in, sir, 
I bring you the message on behalf of my associates, it is our 
proud boast that we are able to report to you that we are 
endeavoring to serve the Republic. 

President wheeler : As we join now in our National Anthem 
let us all lift our faces toward the Tower, whence cometh our 
help, and in thought of our boys who are in the service, register 
again with ourselves in our hearts a vow of loyalty to this Nation. 

To the accompaniment of the strains of the Stur Spangled 
Banner the service flag was unfolded on the Sather Tower. 



DEDICATOET ADDBESSES 53 



DEDICATION OF OILMAN HALL 

Chairman, Edmund O'Neill, Ph.B. 
Professor of Chemistry, University of California 

The CHAIRMAN: We meet today to dedicate this building. 
It is called Oilman Hall, in honor of Daniel Coit Oilman, the 
first President of the University, from 1870 to 1874. Under his 
administration the University was organized, the faculty en- 
larged, and the course of instruction amplified. Unusual for 
the administrators of his day, he believed in the importance 
of science; and it was through his efforts that the College of 
Chemistry was established and the first laboratory was built. 

Afterward, as the first President of Johns Hopkins Univer- 
sity, he had a larger field for his administrative genius ; and we 
all know the impetus given to science as the result of the estab- 
lishment of Johns Hopkins, with the eminent leaders of science 
who were gathered in its halls, and the influence of its sons in 
so many American universities. For these reasons it is eminently 
fitting that this building should commemorate him, and the name 
Oilman Hall will ever serve to bring back his personality and 
the services he rendered to this University. 

The dedication of a building is like the launching of a ship. 
The architect or the designer must plan his building or his vessel, 
keeping in mind the experience of the past, endeavoring to 
correct errors, planning improvements, giving rein to his imag- 
ination to create a new design more beautiful or more har- 
monious or better fitted for its purpose. And then comes the 
period of building, when the architect or designer sees his dream 
take form, when the artisans fashion the stone and the steel and 
the wood, each workman a specialist in his task, each craftsman 
doing the work that lies before him, in apparent confusion and 
aimlessness. But gradually the structure shapes itself, the 
casual onlooker can understand the meaning of the seemingly 
disconnected efforts, can recognize the outlines of what it is 
meant to be ; and finally the building or the ship is finished and 
ready for its purpose. 



54 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

Th.e launching or the dedication is a gala day, a day of 
festivities and celebration. The vessel glides down the ways 
festooned with banners and streamers, with the sound of music 
and the plaudits of the assembled multitude'; the dedication of 
great buildings are carried out with pomp and ceremony. Are 
those ceremonies and festivities merely in commemoration of the 
completion of a great work? Only in part. It seems to me that 
it is more a mark of what the future will bring. The ship sails 
away to foreign shores, with its passengers and cargo, bringing 
new materials and new ideas to other parts of the world and 
returning with a freight of material and spiritual things for our 
enlightenment and betterment; and so it is with this building. 
We commemorate its completion, we recall to our mind the labors 
and devotion of the architect and advisers, and builders of this 
beautiful structure. But still more this dedication is to mark 
the promise of the future. Year after year students, instructors, 
and investigators will work in these laboratories, teaching the 
experience of the past, expounding the knowledge of the present, 
and unveiling the mysteries of the future. Future generations 
will throng this hall ; professors and students, mutually helpful, 
pioneers in science, exploring new fields, attacking new problems, 
solving the riddles of the universe. 

Tomorrow is the fiftieth birthday of the University. The 
founders of the College of California are not here to witness the 
development of their little College. I remember as a boy going 
to the evening lectures of Professor Carr (the first Professor of 
Chemistry), where he presented the elementary principles of 
chemistry, illustrated with experiments. Although it was fifty 
years ago I remember the lectures and experiments as though 
they occurred yesterday. It fired my imagination and gave me 
my first insight into the charm and interest of science. Little 
did I think then that fifty years later I would assist in the dedi- 
cation of a chemical laboratory, many times larger, many times 
more costly than the entire college of those days. Would that 
the men of those times could be present here this week to see 
the great tree that has grown from the little seed they planted 
in the sixties. 

The development of the Department of Chemistry may be 
divided into three periods; the first period from 1870 to 1890, 
the second period from 1890 to 1918, and the third period today. 



DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 55 

The beginning of each of these epochs is marked by the erection 
of a new building. 

South Hall, the first edifice of the campus, was to a large 
extent devoted to chemistry. The original plan was to build it 
entirely of granite, but owing to lack of money the granite was 
used only to the first floor, the remainder being of brick. But 
the building was good. Only the best material was used. Iron 
straps, for bracing and binding, were freely used and the build- 
ing has stood the test of time, weather, earthquakes, and use for 
nearly fifty years,- and it is as sound and good as it ever was. 
The cost, when labor and material were a fraction of what they 
are now, was $180,000. The architect was David Farquharson. 
The furnishing and equipment were of the highest quality. The 
interior furnishings were of California laurel, the laboratory 
desks were of black walnut ; the hoods were made of plate glass. 
Everything was of the very best, and the laboratory when com- 
pleted was far superior to any in America and unexcelled by any 
in the world. 

The faculty was small, the students few in number, but the 
spirit was fine. Of the chemistry instructors of those days two 
have passed away. Professors Rising and Christy. Professors 
Stillman and Slate are still with us. Under their inspiring and 
enthusiastic leadership, together with the smallness of the classes 
and the lack of distracting avocations and activities, now 
unhappily so prevalent, we could devote ourselves to study and 
reflection and discussion in a leisurely way that now no longer 
is possible. The closeness of association of professor and student, 
so often referred to by the old graduates, was the rule. The small 
college in the midst of the uninhabited fields of Berkeley had a 
charm that can never come again. 

The University grew, and with it the Department of Chem- 
istry. South Hall, in spite of the erection of a number of other 
buildings, became too small for the accommodation of the 
chemistry students, and in 1890 the Regents erected the adjacent 
Chemistry Hall, devoted entirely to chemistry. The late Clinton 
Day, an alumnus of the College of California, was the architect. 
The cost was $62,000. Additions were made from time to time, 
and the cost as it now stands amounts to about $100,000. This 
structure marks the second stage in the development of the 
College of Chemistry. 



56 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENABT 

Just as the building was devoted to chemistry alone, so the 
course of instruction in the College was narrowed to specialized 
chemistry. In the early days the College of Chemistry served 
the purpose of a College of Natural Science, which at that time 
did not exist. Students interested in general science enrolled in 
the College of Chemistry. The creation of the College of Natural 
Science, now merged with the College of Letters as the College 
of Letters and Science, gave the general science student greater 
freedom in the choice of his studies, and the College of Chemistry 
could devote itself to its more special instruction. 

This condition continued until the advent of Professor Lewis, 
in 1912, when the graduate and research departments were 
organized. The conditions of the seventies were reproduced ; the 
graduate school taking the place of the early College. The small 
number of students, the group of young and enthusiastic instruc- 
tors, the close relations in the laboratory and the seminar, serve 
as a reminder of the old laboratory in South Hall. 

This building in a material way also brings back recollections 
of the seventies. Like South Hall it has its deep foundations, its 
massive walls, its tons of steel reinforcement. It will prove a 
monument to the architect, John Galen Howard, and to the 
State of California, which, as in 1870, provided the great sum 
of money for its erection. 

But this structure, beautiful and genuine as it is with its 
varied and costly equipment, with electric furnaces that will melt 
platinum or granite, its liquid hydrogen plant, by means of 
which we will approach the absolute zero, its delicate measuring 
instruments that will show a variation of .00001 of a degree, will 
all be valueless if they are not put to real use. Eeal use will 
require real men. If a company of instructors and students 
imbued with the true spirit of research, with genuine love for 
learning, with intelligence and will, with enthusiasm a.nd per- 
sistence, with patience and industry will devote themselves to 
solving the secrets of science, the mysteries of nature, then this 
building will serve its purpose. I can safely say that within 
this hall is gathered such a company ; and it is in the confidence 
of this knowledge that we assemble here today to dedicate this 
building to its high purpose of advancing knowledge, to reach 
a little farther into the unknown, to teach the truth, and to help 
mankind in its quest for happiness. 



DEDICATOBT ADDBESSES 57 



ADDRESS OF JOHN MAXSON STILLMAN, Ph.B., 

Emeritus Professor of Chemistry, Leland Stanford Junior University 

The CHAIRMAN: "We have spoken of the spirit of the old 
laboratory in South Hall, of the fine relations between instructor 
and student, and of the charm of the environment. One of the 
men who exemplified this spirit is with us today, John Maxson 
Stillman, student in the College of Chemistry from 1870 to 1874, 
Instructor of Chemistry in the University of California from 
1875 to 1882, later Professor of Chemistry and Vice President 
of Stanford University, now Professor Emeritus — Dr. Stillman 
is a most fitting representative to take part in the dedication of 
tliis building. I wish to take this opportunity of paying a per- 
sonal tribute to him in the part he played here in the early 
University. He has been identified with the development of 
chemistry in California since the beginning. His influence as a 
teacher has been widespread and far reaching. With respect 
and affection, I present him to you and will ask him to tell us 
something about the early University and what this dedication 
means to him. 

Professor stillman : Permit me first to express my appre- 
ciation of the courtesy extended to the University I represent 
and of the honor conferred upon me by the authorities of the 
University of California in inviting me to participate in the 
dedication of this new and splendid temple to chemical science. 

As a representative of the Department of Chemistry of Stan- 
ford University I take pleasure in extending to the University 
of California and to our friends and colleagues of the Depart- 
ment of Chemistry our heartfelt congratulations upon this 
important addition to the equipment and therefore to the 
efficiency of chemical training in the University. 

I voice the sentiments of my colleagues of Stanford in 
expressing our hope and confidence in an ever increasing develop- 
ment, and an ever widening infiuence of this department upon 
the growth of chemical science in America. 



58 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

It is, however, not only as a representative of a sister insti- 
tution that I am deeply interested in the occasion which brings 
us together here. When, forty-five years ago the University first 
established itself at Berkeley, laboratory instruction in chemistry 
was first systematically undertaken ; and it was my valued privi- 
lege as assistant and later as instructor to participate in the 
work of the pioneer period of this Department of Chemistry. 

It is not an easy matter to span this gulf of years with full 
realization of the different conditions prevailing then and now, 
conditions affecting not merely the facilities of this University 
for the teaching of chemistry, but the relations of chemical 
education to public demand and appreciation. Indeed, it is 
difficult now to realize the great difference in the relations of 
university ideals in general to the popular comprehension which 
underlies public support, as they obtained then and as they 
now exist. 

The last published catalogue of the University shows a 
student body in the colleges at Berkeley numbering 6780 
students. In the first year at Berkeley the total registration 
was 191. 

The latest register shows a teaching force in the Chemistry 
Department of eight professors, one lecturer, five instructors, and 
fourteen assistants, or thirty altogether. In 1873 there was but 
a single professor. Professor Willard B. Rising, who came to the 
work fresh from several years training in the best laboratories 
of the Old World and brought with him methods and ideals of 
chemical training abreast of the time. He was assisted that first 
year by but three undergraduate assistants, seniors in the College 
of Chemistry. While the spacious laboratories of chemistry 
have been in recent years continuously overcrowded by their 
almost thousands of workers, the two modest laboratory rooms 
in Old South Hall were in those early years never overcrowded 
by their few dozens of students. 

And these comparative figures are indicative of, and to a 
great extent a measure of, the changes that have taken place in 
the public appreciation of the value of university ideals and 
of the importance of chemistry to the public welfare. 

The career of the chemist in those days offered few induce- 
ments and little of promise. The Pacific Coast in particular still 



DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 59 

lingered in the epoch of the exploitation of its rich natural 
resources in gold and silver, grain, cattle, and timber. The 
occupation of chemist meant to the general public little more 
than that of assayer of gold and silver or pharmacist. Outside 
of mining the chemical industries were few, and were conducted 
primitively and on established traditional lines. Indeed, the 
chemical industries of the whole United States were largely" 
contented to depend upon the scientific and technical achieve- 
ments of Europe. 

Those were years of sacrifice and of many trials for the little 
band of teachers with advanced concepts of University education 
and for their relatively few but very earnest supporters in Cali- 
fornia. Isolated by distance from sympathetic co-workers in the 
Eastern States, struggling against public apathy, and battling- 
against attempts to obstruct their aims or to divert from the 
young University its needed financial support their discourage- 
ments were many and their disappointments frequent. So much 
the greater honor to those who, nevertheless, against all oppo- 
sition kept the course of the University ever steadily onward 
toward the highest ideals, until such time as the people of Cali- 
fornia, recognizing at last the value of the service rendered, 
rallied loyally and generously to its support. 

A great leader of those who formulated and fought for high 
university standards was he who from 1872 to 1875 held the 
office of President of the University, Daniel C. Oilman. Though 
but for three years he was with us those years were critical years. 
The organization of Johns Hopkins University, the unique posi- 
tion it very soon commanded among American universities and 
the prestige it so long maintained are the lasting monuments to 
the high ideals and the organizing ability of President Oilman. 
And if not so conspicuously, no less effectively was his influence 
exerted in the infancy of the University of California. The 
clear judgment, the sound ideals of scholarship, and the friendly 
encouragement of President Oilman awakened and nourished 
the ambitions of many of the students of those early years to 
persevere in attaining the most thorough obtainable training for 
the educational career, when conditions generally were disheart- 
ening to such aspirations. And so it appeals to me as very- 
appropriate that this new laboratory, devoted to the extension 



60 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

of chemical knowledge, should bear the name of Oilman, our 
pioneer leader, whose far seeing vision and wise initiative laid 
broad and deep the foundations upon which under enlightened 
leadership the splendid superstructure of our State University 
has been erected. 

It is at a momentous time in our national history that Oilman 
Hall is opened for research and instruction. But it is also an 
auspicious time, for do we not all see now, as we have never seen 
before that America must never again be satisfied to be depen- 
dent upon any other nation for the vital necessities of national 
life, either in her industries or in the scientific knowledge upon 
which these are founded? Yet it is in the chemical field that 
in the past our unpreparedness has been most flagrant. The 
many serious problems which in this time of war are taxing to 
the utmost the chemical skill and science in this country are not 
more serious nor numerous than those which will call upon 
chemical science in the strenuous years to follow, when peace 
shall some time come to this war-torn world. 

May Oilman Hall, under direction of its wise faculty and 
with the loyal support of the people of California, contribute 
in generous measure to the solution of the future problems con- 
fronting the chemists of America. For the American people 
are at last fully aware that the security and the prosperity of 
this nation is dependent in no small measure upon the self 
dependent character of its chemical science and its chemical 
industries. 

I have a letter from President Oilman written forty years 
ago. It will not be without interest today: 

Baltimore, Feb. 16, 1878. 
My dear Stillman : 

There are no letters (except family letters) which give me 
so much pleasure as those I receive from California, and within 
a few days I have been favored with excellent varieties of the 
species, from your pen and Mr. Stearns's. My last previous 

letter was from Prof. Rising I have had many printed papers 

referring to the progress of the Univ. of Cal. including the notes 
of Mr. Bacon's proposed gift, the Report of the Regents, the 
lectures of Prof. Becker, etc. In all these signs of growth and 



DEDICATOBY ADDBESSES 61 

progress, I rejoice with all my heart. I have always believed 
that the good forces in California would overcome the bad 
elements, — and that we should see a university on the Berkeley 
slopes, strong and sound, helping on all the interests, social, 
industrial, political, literary and scientific. It is a great pleasure 
to me to see on the Register, which has also come lately to hand, 
the names of former students enrolled among the instructors. 
The Faculty of a college, as it seems to me, should be in part 
composed of Alumni of the institution and in part from men 
trained elsewhere. The former know the situation, — its good 
points and bad; they love their Alma Mater and are quick to 
defend and advance her interests. The latter bring in good ideas 
from other institutions and prevent the concern from moving 
in too firm a routine. As I write, your name and Jackson's, 
and Christy's, and Slate's, and Rowell's, and Parker's, and Hin- 
ton's, and ever so many more occur to me as those on whom the 
University might well rely. Royce would be a great addition to 
your company. He has certainly a very remarkable mind and 
is I think likely to become a man of great distinction. . . . Give 
my kind regards to all your comrades and believe me. Ever 
your friend. 

Sincerely, 

D. C. Oilman. 



-62 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY 



ADDRESS OF L. H. DUSCHAK, A.M., Ph.D. 

Superintendent of the Berkeley Experiment Station of the United States 

Bureau of Mines 

The chairman : Dr. Stillman represents the old University. 
Since his time a new generation has come into the field to carry- 
on the work. We older men must lay down our burden to be 
taken up by the younger ones. 

Dr. Lionel H, Duschak is a fitting representative of this 
group. A graduate of Michigan and Princeton, Superintendent 
of the Berkeley Experiment Station of the United States Bureau 
of Mines, a specialist in physical chemistry, he will serve in the 
ranks of chemists and carry forward the banner of the scientist. 
For a long period yet to come he and his contemporaries will see 
the uses to which this building will be put, will watch the work 
that will be done in it, and will make use of the results and dis- 
coveries made in this laboratory. As a representative of the 
younger generation of chemists I present Dr. Duschak. 

Doctor duschak: As a representative of the younger men 
who are engaged in chemical work I deeply appreciate the honor 
of being invited to participate in the dedication of Oilman Hall. 
"We have watched with a real interest the recent growth and 
progress of the Chemistry Department of this University and 
note with gratification that its needs for better facilities have 
been met by this excellent new building. May I extend to the 
University and the Chemistry Department our congratulations 
on the event which gives rise to this ceremony ? 

It will occur to all of us that this occasion is one of particular 
significance to our part of the chemical world. Standing as a 
permanent addition to the chemical group, Oilman Hall is a mile- 
stone marking an important step in the development of the 
chemical work of the University. I wish to indicate by a few 
words what this development may mean to us. The underlying 
thought which I wish to convey to you is suggested by consider- 
ing for a moment the relation of this University in its entirety 
to the Commonwealth. I shall not attempt to define this, but 



DEDICATOBT ADDBESSES 63 

wish only to call your attention to certain facts which have 
impressed me. As a part of this University we find colleges of 
mining and agriculture, which in many states form separate 
and all too frequently competing institutions. We find courses 
in music, in commercial education, and in other branches which 
are frequently offered only in special schools. We observe a 
quick response on the part of the University to growing popular 
interest in any new line of endeavor. This is not to be inter- 
preted in any sense as a concession to faddishness, but rather 
as an evidence of virility, of alertness, of a desire to assist in 
realizing the greatest good from each new activity by giving it 
the benefit of the scientific study and technical direction available 
in the great University workshop. This University has main- 
tained to an unusual degree a close and helpful contact with the 
complex and ever changing activities of the life about it. 

May we not take it for granted then that this splendid new 
building will be used by the Chemical Department for corre- 
sponding efforts in its own particular field; that the increasing 
chemical activity within the University implies a corresponding 
increase in the helpful influence which will emanate from this 
center to the broad and varied fields of chemical activity with- 
out? 

Research in so-called pure science has been aptly referred 
to as the foundation upon which all scientific work rests. One 
should not think of this foundation, however, as a mass of 
concrete lying cold and inert in the earth, but rather as the trunk 
of a great tree, which is constantly pushing forth its roots into 
new and unpenetrated earth, tapping new sources of vital 
energy. We shall expect first of all, then, that the activities in 
this new building will supply leadership in the field of theoretical 
chemistry; a field in which this Department already occupies 
a prominent place. This leadership will come in part from 
the trained men continually going out from the University. 

Consideration of the practical value of a theoretical advance 
is rarely, if ever, the compelling motive of the investigator. He 
has a less material vision before him. Today, however, no one 
regards it as a degradation of science that such practical appli- 
cation should be made. It is an interesting fact that some of 
the recent and highly fundamental theories and conceptions of 



64 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

physical science have received direct practical application. As 
an example, the new type of X-ray apparatus developed at the 
research laboratory of the General Electric Company may be 
cited. In fact chemistry would enjoy but a restricted existence 
and would probably suffer decay were it not making its rich and 
varied contributions to the daily needs of the world. 

The ideal and the material must go hand in hand ; and in this 
new building, which is being dedicated today, there is abundant 
evidence that both aspects of chemistry will be given due atten- 
tion. The variety and extent of the material resources of the 
Pacific Coast is well known. Their utilization has only just 
begun. In unlocking the great storehouses of this region the 
chemical pioneers will look to the University for assistance in 
many ways. In this connection it is well to remember that as 
we pass from experimental work for a theoretical purpose to that 
with material ends in view, we usually approach operations of 
an extremely simple character. The basic principles will be 
obvious and well understood, and the technician's skill is more 
particularly required in detecting and controlling what may 
superficially appear to be details of small importance. The 
solution of a seemingly minor problem may bring major results. 

Members of the Chemistry Department will be proud to recall 
later on that much of the equipment for experimental work of 
a more practical character was first used in the study of prob- 
lems having to do with the utilization of local materials in 
meeting the needs of our country in the present great conflict. 

The relation of chemical work within the University and that 
without should not be one-sided. We on our part wish to stand 
in the most friendly and helpful relationship to the department, 
to assist where possible to the end that it may achieve the largest 
measure of usefulness. With the idea of friendly cooperation 
and mutual helpfulness in mind the dedication of this new 
and splendidly equipped building has an almost individual sig- 
nificance to each one of us. 

In the years to come there will grow up about Gilman Hall 
rich memories, like those which now enshroud its older com- 
panions. In this new era just beginning the Chemistry Depart- 
ment will continue true to its early ideals and traditions and 
will carry forward the standards so splendidly maintained 
throughout the past. 



DEDICATORY ADDRESSES 65 



DEDICATION OF THE PAGET CHAIR IN THE 
GREEK THEATRE 

Chairman, Professor William Carey Jones, M.A. 

Professor of Jurisprudence, Director of the School of Jurisprudence, 
Dean of the Graduate Division, University of California 

The chairman : We come this afternoon to dedicate in a very 
informal manner a chair in honor of one who exemplified in the 
finest way the elements of Gaelic civilization. Professor Paget 
was known to some of us rather intimately. It is one of my 
precious memories, as it was my fortune, to know Mr. and 
Madame Paget in a more intimate way than most persons did. 
I knew them in their daily life, and with the little things that 
come up and the big things that come up in daily life. I learned 
to love and admire Professor Paget for his sincerity and 
unashamed way, for his fine scholarship and his loyalty to this 
country ; and to love his wife, Madame Paget, for her marvelous 
devotion to her husband, for her interest in the social and civil 
affairs in the community in which she came to live, and for her 
loyalty to her friends. Professor Paget was a big man. He 
did not carry any rank, but in that stupendous beginning of 
the war which caused him to leave his land, that part of the 
territory of France which was taken away just as we see it now 
in the present aggression, he was impoverished and forced to 
come to this country to get a living for himself, and to leave a 
very happy home, yet there was no rancor for that country. 
Some of his best friends in this country were Germans. We did 
not know until after his death that during all these years (he 
had been here twenty-five years) a very considerable portion 
of his income had to go back to France to care for those depen- 
dents left behind him. Nothing was ever said by him, nor did 
it appear in his household, yet that was the fact. He was devot- 
ing himself to them with his love. Here in this country he estab- 
lished the warmest of friendship with those who knew him, and 
he exemplified as I said those characteristics of French character 



66 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

which we have all come to know so well in these last few years : 
the simplicity, the earnest, firm, steady patience, the high- 
mindedness of the French people. To this man who leaves his 
greatest teaching, French language and literature, this Chair 
has been given by one of his former students in memory of him. 
It would be something that would be very pleasant to him to 
know that he has been remembered, and more especially to 
Madame Paget, whose single thought of life was for Professor 
Paget; and any appreciation of him during his life was so 
warmly received by her that it would be pleasant, especially so 
for her, to know that he has been remembered in this way. 

This afternoon we have Professor Charles Gilbert Chinard, 
who accupies the chair now which Professor Paget formerly 
occupied, and he will speak to you. 



DEDICATOBT ADDBESSES 67 



ADDRESS OF CHARLES GILBERT CHINARD, B. es L., 

L. ES L. 

Professor of French, University of California 

Students of history know well the part played by the French 
in the discovery of the far West and the Pacific coast. Their 
contribution to the intellectual development of this part of the 
country still remains to be written. If it is ever done, a chapter, 
and that not the least important, will certainly be given to Pro- 
fessor Felicien Victor Paget, 

Born in France in the first part of the nineteenth century, 
Profesor Paget came to this country, a man already mature in 
years and rich in experience. He was appointed instructor of 
French in the University of California in 1887, and for fifteen 
years he initiated several college generations of students and 
teachers into the knowledge and appreciation of the literature 
of his native countrj^ 

The French Department counted very few students when in 
1894 Professor Paget was put at the head of it. French was 
considered a sort of luxury and the schools neglected it almost 
entirely. Professor Paget would be happy if he could see how 
today the people of the State and the school authorities have 
finally come to realize that France has something unique to offer 
them. 

In more than one way Professor Paget contributed to this 
change of attitude : the teachers he educated are to be found 
today in many schools of the State; our students can still use 
the books which he bequeathed to the French Department; and 
finally he and his widow left to the University all their property, 
to be kept in trust as long as this institution shall endure. 
Through this trust fund a graduate fellowship was established, 
to be awarded every year to a student of French, 

Professor Paget has been well repaid for his devotion to the 
University. Almost all the students who held the Paget fellow- 
ship are at the present time teaching French in the State ; several 
were enabled to go to France and to study there; one of them 



68 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

after a short visit to France decided to go back to Paris, and for 
the last three years she has devoted all her energy to the 
reeducation of the French wounded. 

In this place which may well be considered as the hearth of 
the University, through the grateful care of one of his former 
students Professor Paget 's memory will be associated with the 
future life of our university community. He will be remem- 
bered as a gentleman, a lover of letters, a good friend, and a 
pioneer who blazed the trail and still shows the way to his suc- 
cessors. 



DEDICATOBY ADDBESSES 69 



ADDRESS OF CHARLES CESTRE 

Professor of English Literature in the University of Bordeaux, Special 
Eepresentative of the Minister of Public Instruction of France 

Mr. chairman, ladies, and gentlemen: France has never 
lacked explorers, either explorers of land, as this country well 
knows, or explorers of thought. Professor Paget was one of the 
pioneers of the intellectual relations between France and 
America. 

It is fitting that under the auspices of Professor Paget 's 
memory a salute should be brought from France to this Uni- 
versity. 

To the University of California, young in years but ripe in 
learned achievement, I bring the greetings of the universities of 
France, ripe in years but ever young in spirit. Ever since the 
times when the devout churchman and scholar Robert Sorbon, 
in the remote Middle Age founded on Monte 8te. Genevieve 
the college which soon shone throughout Eui^ope as the very 
source of knowledge and wisdom, the universities of France, 
daughters of the old Sorbonne, have kept brightly burning and 
have handed on from generation to generation the torch of 
human learning. This University, co-temporary to the settle- 
ment of one of the most recent cities in the United States, has 
been prompt in seizing the bright luminary and uplifting it high 
to throw the pure light of the intellect and the spirit on the 
path of its aspiring sons and daughters. 

"Wherever I have been in the United States I have admired 
the staunch devotion to the ideal, in the midst of resolute 
endeavors to conquer the forces of nature and transform the 
primal energies into elements of human welfare. This cult 
of the higher life is especially manifest in the universities. But 
nowhere does it appear with more striking distinctness than in 
the will of the founders of this College to have the life of the 
spirit develop on this western coast at the same pace as the 
growth of the new city and the gradual mastering of wild nature 
by the pioneers of civilization. 



70 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

In their devotion to spiritual values France and America 
stand together in an age when base worship of materialism, 
selfish interests, and blinded self indulgence have led some 
nations to disown all that the joint efforts of great thinkers, 
religious teachers, and progressive writers, in the past history 
of mankind, had done to raise the human being and human 
society above the level of the brutal primitive conditions of exist- 
ence. The catastrophe which has been wilfully loosed upon the 
world by one set of peoples, and covered the soil of Belgium, 
honored for her arts and crafts, and the soil of France, hallowed 
by twenty centuries of civilization, with bloodshed and reeking 
ruins, shows that it is possible for knowledge to grow without 
any softening of national manners, for technical skill to develop 
without any bettering of social ethics, for prosperity to increase 
without any showing of good will towards others, and that there 
is such a thing as scientific barbarism. 

The democratic countries, America, France, and England 
(whatever their mistakes or misdemeanors in former times) have 
at least shown themselves capable of learning the lesson of their 
own history and of the history of the world. It is not in vain 
that the rule of their public life has been the application of the 
universal principles of morals to politics and social relations. 
Groping their way through blunders and occasional abuses of 
power — humanum est errare — they have in the long run disci- 
plined their appetites, quelled their instincts, restrained their 
ambitions, and come to apply the Christian dictate of loving 
kindness and the philosophic mandate of justice to the inter- 
national organization of the comity of nations. 

The French have never lost sight of the noble teaching of 
their moralists, who always placed the harmonious and humane 
cultivation of the whole soul above the mere quantitative enrich- 
ment of the mind, remembering the precept of Montaigne : 

Science sans conscience n'est que mine de I'dme. 
This ought to be placed side by side with the noble saying of 
Emerson : 

"Hitch thy wagon to a star," 
and the thoughtful and inspiring sentiment of Lowell : 

"Conscience is the taste of the soul; taste is the conscience 
of the mind." 



DEDICATOBY ADDBESSES 71 

All ought to be recollected in conjunction with the line of Words- 
worth: 

"We live by Admiration, Love, and Hope." 

Nations that do more than lip service to the ideal, who record 
in their past a noble struggle for liberty, or generous assistance 
tendered to others for their emancipation, or liberal and just 
treatment dealt to minor races, or a strenuous endeavor to cause 
peace and a legal status to prevail in the world, are alone 
entitled, according to the tests recognized by the modern con- 
science, to the name of civilized nations. They ought to unite, 
even at the price of costly outlay and dire sacrifice, to ensure 
the triumph of right in its age-old battle against might. 

To the noble elan of idealistic friendship and cooperation 
that brought Lafayette and Rochambeau over to these shores in 
1777 answers today the disinterested idealistic movement of 
sympathy and joint service which has carried the Americans 
over to the shores of France in the resolute intent to end the 
insupportable tyranny that threatened the world. Henceforth, 
both for the Americans and the French, the watchword is, in 
the imperishable terms of General Pershing, ' ' We are here. ' ' 



72 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 



DEDICATION OF THE ESHLEMAN BUST 

Presiding Officer, Max Thelen, B.L,, A.M. 
President California State Eailroad Commission 

Pkofessoe rieber, chairman : Friends of Mr, Eshleman : My 
part in this programme will be very brief because I did not 
know Mr. Eshleman personally ; I never saw him while he lived 
amongst us, but now I see him every day and I want to see him 
day and night. 

As Chairman of the committee which has had charge of this 
celebration, I was anxious that this part of the programme 
should be directed by one who knew him and loved him, and 
who came in contact with him when he was at work. The one 
thing that I insisted upon in connection with the bust was that 
it should finally be placed, not in some corridor of the library, 
but in some equally honorable place where the students could see 
that face every day, every hour, and so it will be put here in the 
corridor of Wheeler Hall Auditorium. 

This celebration committee has been very anxious to have 
as many of the alumni in these different years honored as could 
possibly be honored, and at various meetings we raised the 
question, Who are our most distinguished alumni? and we 
started to make a list, running it up to ten, fifteen, twenty of 
the most distinguished alumni during the last few years. I have 
also taken it upon myself to ask men whom I met at random who 
they thought were the most distinguished alumni. I would say, 
"If you were to make a list of the most distinguished alumni, 
who would they be?" Invariably the list would be headed by 
Josiah Royce, and invariably the second on the list was Jack 
Eshleman. 

I take unusual pleasure in asking Mr. Max Thelen, who 
probably knew Mr. Eshleman better than any one else, to take 
charge of this meeting. 



DEDICATOBY ADDBESSES 73 



ADDRESS OF MAX THELEN, B.L., A.M. 
President California State "Eailroad Commission 

Mr. THELEN: Brothers and Sisters of our common Alma 
Mater and Friends: I think it most fitting that on an occasion 
of this kind when our University is celebrating her fiftieth anni- 
versary at least one function should be set aside to do honor to 
one of the sons of our University; and no son who has gone 
forth from this University represents better the ideals of the 
University and the spirit of service of the University than Jack 
Eshleman. Most fitting is it, therefore, that on this occasion, 
devoted to do honor to one of our sons, the son chosen should be 
Jack Eshleman. 

I remember the very first day in which I came to college I 
saw Jack. He was President of the Junior Class at that time 
and he gave us a talk, telling us just how we should conduct 
ourselves as freshmen. From that time through the days of 
college, through the years afterward, and through his magnificent 
work as President of the Railroad Commission, I knew him well, 
I knew him intimately ; I learned to know the splendid character- 
istics which he had; his principles; his sympathy, his courage, 
and his high idealism. Sympathy for the common man and 
common woman tempered by an understanding of their need 
and their views ; courage to go forward in every healthy under- 
taking, and courage to stand firm when assailed, showing forth 
the high idealism for which this University so preeminently 
stands. 

A little while ago, after he had passed beyond, a number of 
his friends, particularly in the east, acting in concert with men 
here in our own state, thought it would be most fitting that the 
students of this University should day by day be reminded of 
this splendid son of the University, that there should be here 
some tangible reminder of Jack; and thus it was that men in 
every part of this country to which his fame and his reputation 
had gone united so that there might be presented to this Uni- 
versity and appear here day by day as a reminder of him, a 



74 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

bust of Jack. It was under the leadership of Maurice L. 
Cook that this particular bust which you see here today was 
sculptured, and is here today ready to be presented as a perma- 
nent reminder of this great son of the University. 

I assume that Jack 's work as President of the Railroad Com- 
mission will live in the years to come as the greatest of his great 
work ; and I want you to know that although he is no longer with 
us in person his spirit still dominates the Railroad Commission. 
If there is a problem of difficulty that comes to us if we know 
how Jack would have acted under the circumstances our path 
is clear. 

The spirit of service is the predominant spirit of the Univer- 
sity of California, and none of our sons more clearly typified 
that spirit than did Jack. 



DEDICATOBY ADDRESSES 75 



ADDRESS OF COLONEL HARRIS WEINSTOCK 

Me. thelen: My friends, we shall now go hence, but Jack's 
bust will remain here, and as day by day the young men and 
the young women of the University of California for genera- 
tions to come look upon him they will be encouraged to render 
the same kind of service, service to this University, service to 
the State of California, and to all which is good and noble ; for 
such was Jack's service, and of that service he, more than any 
other of the young men of the University, is the noble example. 

With pleasure I introduce to you, my friends, Colonel Wein- 
stock, who will present the dedicatory address : 

Colonel weinstock: I once heard Robert Ingersoll, the 
great orator, say, "I love this country. I love this country 
because the humblest wage earner at the close of his day's toil, 
can take his boy upon his knee and say to him, 'My boy, if you 
have the brain and the character, you can some day, despite your 
humble origin, fill the highest place in the gift of the American 
people.' " 

How often have we seen this exemplified in our land. This 
country, for example, has seen Andrew Jackson, the son of a 
poor Irish emigrant, James Polk, the son of a poor farmer, 
beginning life as a clerk in a country store, Millard Fillmore, 
starting his career as a wool carder, Andrew Johnson, entering 
upon his life work as a tailor, Abraham Lincoln, starting out 
as a rail splitter, and James Garfield, the canal boat driver, all 
in turn occupying the Presidential chair. 

This Republic has seen the sons of toil and poverty elevated 
to the positions of Governors of our Commonwealths, members 
of our Supreme Courts, representatives in the United States 
Senate, and Ambassadors to foreign nations. No position of 
public trust or honor is closed in this great country to the 
humble or to the lowly born, if they but prove worthy. The 
only aristocracy that the American people recognize is the aris- 
tocracy of fitness and character. 



76 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

Where then, can we find a country that offers a greater 
incentive to youth honorably to qualify itself for high places? 
"What people in ancient or modem times have shown greater 
appreciation than the American people for the man of worth? 
In a land of autocracy, accident of noble birth, as a rule, is the 
first essential for social or political preferment. In this democ- 
racy fitness and the ability to serve, regardless of birth, are, as 
a rule, essentials to attain to places of honor and distinction. 

We are assembled here today to do honor to the memory of 
one who, in his career, has exemplified all that I have thus far 
said. 

John M. Eshleman was born in Illinois under the humblest 
circumstances. He was a farm boy until his nineteenth year. 
Drifting to California he became a railroad section hand, a 
steward in a railroad construction camp, and even exercised his 
abilities in the handling of the frying pan. Life for him during 
all these years had been a hard, close struggle. He knew what it 
was to toil and to labor. Though blest with a stout heart and 
an abiding faith in himself and in the earnestness of his life's 
purpose, he was hampered by a frail body. His lack of physical 
powers did not, however, keep him from performing the hardest 
manual labor and living on the roughest and coarsest fare. 

His youth had been no feathered existence. Life to him was 
real and earnest. If he was to make his way in the world it must 
be made despite the lack of wealth or influence, despite lack of 
early educational advantages, despite the lack of influential 
friends, despite the lack of robust health. 

There is no greater test of character than in early youth to 
be thrown upon one's own resources. The weakling is likely to 
succumb to the temptations to which the poor and friendless are 
subjected. The feeble are easily submerged in the seething mass 
in which each is struggling to rise over the heads of the others. 
To the strong of heart and mind such struggles are simply devel- 
opers of character. The university of hard knocks, to him who 
can safely pass through it, is the world's finest university. It 
brings the graduate the experience he can get in no other way, 
an experience which nowhere can be bought for money. As a 
rule, it gives him an outlook on life and a knowledge of human 
nature unknown to him who has been reared as a hot house 



DEDICATOBY ADDBESSES IT 

plant. It teaches him, as a rule, how better to sympathize with 
the humble and the lowly, and better to deal with the high and 
the mighty. The university of hard knocks brings out, as a rule, 
the highest and manliest qualities the graduate may possess, and. 
gives him a faith in himself that is not least among his most 
valuable assets. The university of hard knocks, as a rule, brings 
out of a man all his initiative, all his self reliance, all his aggres- 
siveness. It teaches him to stand firmly on his own feet and to 
meet obstacles and difficulties with fortitude and courage. 

John M. Eshleman was not only a graduate of the university 
of hard knocks but he was also a graduate of the University of 
California. "While wielding his pick and shovel as a railroad 
section hand, his quick mind and his restless ambition led him 
to prepare himself for a higher education. His college career 
led his friends and admirers to feel that his was to be an impor- 
tant future. As president of the Associated Students in his 
senior year, and as a member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society and 
the Psi Upsilon Fraternity he made a record which commanded 
attention. His academic work not only won for him special 
recognition in the award of the Le Conte Fellowship, but he 
was also tendered the appointment to become a member of the 
University teaching staff. He left the University of California 
in 1904. 

I first met him as a young deputy of the State Labor 
Commission, seeking information in connection with his official 
duties. I was at once impressed by his earnestness, his intelligent 
grasp of the problems he was dealing with, and his high ideals. 
These qualities, as they grew and developed and flowered, more 
and more commanded for him the attention of those around and- 
about him. 

The name of John M. Eshleman in due course stood for all 
that was straight and clean and high-minded. It stood for force 
of character and for steadfastness of purpose. 

Some one has said that there are just two kinds of people 
in the world, "lifters" and "leaners." Eshelman after enter- 
ing public life was speedily ranked with the "lifters." Many 
learned to lean upon him and to be guided by his wisdom and 
counsel. His voice carried with it weight because it belonged to 
one who had a sane mind and a sound heart. No one was ever 



78 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENAEY 

able to find in his make-up even the touch of a yellow streak. He 
possessed in a high degree the two qualities which the world most 
needs and most admires, convictions and the courage of con- 
victions. 

When occasion arose he did not hesitate in his love of right 
and justice to speak out and to act in accordance with the dic- 
tates of his conscience, regardless of consequences to himself. 
Being thoroughly human, he loved the good will and the appre- 
ciation of all. When forced, however, to choose between the 
plaudits and the good will of the many, on the one hand, and 
the dictates of his conscience on the other hand, his conscience 
prevailed. 

As a member of the Legislature and as District Attorney for 
the County of Imperial, he distinguished himself and became 
generally regarded as a man of unusual strength and force of 
character. The biggest work of his life was as Railroad Com- 
missioner of the State of California. For thirty years or more 
the Railroad Commission of California had been looked upon as 
being in the nature of a standing joke. It was notorious that 
the railway interests had, as a rule, been able to secure the 
election of their own men to this commission, who then faith- 
fully observed the wishes of the railways and subserviently car- 
ried out their behests, regardless of the public welfare. 

For thirty years the Railroad Commission had not only been 
a parasite but it had meanwhile defeated the will of the people. 

Determined that so far as lay within his power this condition 
should no longer prevail, Eshleman when elected Railroad Com- 
missioner threw himself into his work with all the energy at his 
command. It was not long before as President of the Commis- 
sion he had revolutionized the practices of the Commission and 
had made it a live, working organization. He commanded for 
it the fear of the wrong-doer and the respect of the people. 

The Railroad Commission for the first time since its creation 
began to function as a live institution. Those dealing with it 
found that it could no longer be intimidated, threatened, or 
cajoled. The full spirit and letter of the law were carried out 
in an intelligent, fearless, and effective manner; and the people 
soon came into their own. Railway abuses which had been 
tolerated for decades by subservient or inefficient Railroad 



DEDICATOEY ADDRESSES 79 

Commissions were corrected. Citizens with grievances against 
California railways were afforded the fullest hearings and their 
just complaints were speedily adjusted. The achievements of the 
California Railroad Commission under the inspirational leader- 
ship of John M, Eshelman is a record not duplicated in the rail- 
way history of the country, and makes a brilliant chapter in the 
history of this Commonwealth. 

Not only was the dominant corporation in the State over- 
thrown and public rights restored to the people, but the rate 
reductions for the benefit of the people aggregated $6,000,000 a 
year. Application for increased railway rates aggregating $2,- 
000,000 a year were denied and conditions were established that 
were fair to public utility companies and just to the public. 

The achievements of the Commission commanded national 
attention and Eshleman became a conspicuous leader in the 
national conventions dealing with public utilities. In due course 
he was persuaded by his friends to prepare himself for the 
position of Governor of California by becoming the running mate 
of Governor Hiram W. Johnson, as a candidate for Lieutenant 
Governor. His election to that high office was overwhelming. 

He filled the position of President of the Senate with the 
same signal ability which had marked all his previous public 
services. 

Governor Johnson related to me not so long ago how helpful 
Eshleman as President of the Senate had been to him in the 
work of dealing with important legislation that had to be passed 
upon by the Governor. Governor Johnson found the clear brain, 
the unselfish spirit, and the wise counsel of Eshleman of the 
highest value and it was to him a source of satisfaction to feel 
that here was a man to whom could be safely entrusted as his. 
generally accepted successor, the continuation of administering 
the great State policies that had so recently been initiated by 
the Johnson State administration. By none was Eshleman 
mourned more deely and more sincerely than by California's 
greatest Governor, Hiram W. Johnson, to whom as a friend, a 
eo-worker, and a public servant, the loss of Eshleman seemed 
irreparable. 

No man had ever served the State more faithfully or more 
efficiently. He placed the people of California for all time under 



80 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

deep and lasting obligations, and won for himself a place in 
their confidence and in their hearts that is the richest legacy that 
one can leave to those near and dear. 

The qualities of mind that greatly aided him as a public 
servant were his knowledge as an able lawyer of the fundamental 
principles of law, and his rare powers of forceful and effective 
expression of pure and simple English. 

To know John M. Eshleman was to admire, to respect, and to 
love him. His life cannot but be an inspiration to the youth of 
our Commonwealth. The heritage which he has bequeathed to 
those who are to follow, of simple living, high thinking, and 
efficient doing places him in the front rank among California's 
men of distinction. 

It is, therefore, with reverence and affection that friends and 
admirers look upon this marble reproduction of John M. Eshle- 
man. May it continue to stand in these sacred precincts for 
ages to come and may the story of his life, his struggles, and 
his achievements be a continuous source of encouragement to the 
disheartened, an inspiration to the struggling, and a guiding 
star not only to other men in public life but also to the youth 
of our State who are earnestly striving to make themselves as 
useful to their fellow citizens as was he whose memory we are 
at this hour honoring. 

There can be no higher aim in life than so to live that when 
we shall have gone to the beyond it may be said of us as can 
be said of our beloved friend John M. Eshleman, "Well done, 
good and faithful servant. ' ' 



BANQUET ADDRESSES 




FOUNDERS' ROCK 



BANQUET ADDRESSES 83 



ADDRESSES AT A BANQUET TENDERED BY THE 
UNIVERSITY CLUB OF SAN FRANCISCO 

To THE Delegates, Speakers, and Invited Guests of the 
Semicentenaey Celebration 

Tomtmaster: Mr. Willard N. Drown 

The toastmaster: In these serious times I think we should 
begin the evening with a toast to the chief executive of the United 
States, and I call upon Governor Stephens, the chief executive of 
California, to propose the toast. The President of the United 
States. 

A TOAST TO THE PRESIDENT 

Governor Stephens : We must win the war. We will win the 
war, to insure American safety, to secure a larger liberty for man- 
kind, to insure America against the rule of the Hun. We must 
follow the Commander in Chief. Our Commander in Chief is the 
President of the United States, and to the President let us all 
drink. 

The toastmaster : Tomorrow, as you know, is to be held the 
celebration of the semicentennial of the University of California. 
We greatly regret that President Wheeler is unable to be with us 
tonight. But he has delegated Professor A. 0. Leuschner to take 
his place. I call upon Professor Leuschner. 



84 UNIFEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 



ADDRESS OF ARMIN OTTO LEUSCHNER, Ph.D., Sc.D. 

Professor of Astronomy, Director of the Students Observatory 
Mr. president, guests, and FELiLOW-MEMBERS of the CLUB: 

As the President of the Club has said, I am here merely to fill a 
chair. The place card before me reads, ''President Wheeler." 
Until the last moment we had hoped that he would be with us 
tonight to express his appreciation to the Club for entertaining 
the guests of the University, and to give an additional welcome 
to the delegates who have come to us from all parts of the world. 
He was expected to bring with him President Hutchins, who will 
be our Charter Day speaker tomorrow. But President Hutchins 
felt it necessary to remain quietly at home tonight before the 
great task that he has to perform tomorrow. He, as well as 
President Wheeler, who also thought to save himself for the 
exercises which he has to conduct tomorrow, sends the Club and 
our guests heartiest greetings and expressions of sincere regret at 
not being able to be with us here tonight. 

I have also to present to you the regrets of some of our dele- 
gates whom we had counted upon seeing. Among them are Presi- 
dent Van Hise of the University of Wisconsin, Mr. Villard, the 
editor of The Nation, both of whom, on account of an obligation 
which was not foreseen, which imposed upon them another engage- 
ment, are kept at Berkeley tonight. I have also to bring you the 
greetings of our beloved Professor Henry Morse Stephens, who 
had hoped to be with us here tonight with his special guest, Pro- 
fessor Kellogg, whom many of you may know. 

Although I am here only to fill a chair, yet I can but feel as 
the little girl did after her first few days in school, when she was 
asked by her mother how she liked her new experience, and she 
replied, "Oh, thank you, very well." "But why?" she was 
asked. "Because I like the boy that sits next to me." "What 
is his name?" "Oh, it isn't always the same one." That is the 
way university men feel when they get together in the Club. And 
we feel that way all the more when we can sit at the table, not 



BANQUET ADDBESSES 85 

only with our own colleagues in the University but with univer- 
sity men who have come together from all parts of the world, and 
above all if those university men are at the same time representa- 
tives of foreign governments which, side by side with us, are now 
fighting for the great cause of liberty. 

The University of California has just completed fifty years 
of educational service, and this educational service is now cul- 
minating in service to the country. Never before was it realized 
what the universities could do in an emergency such as faces us 
at the present time. Colleges and universities were thought to 
be pretty good places to send one's sons to, to get a little liberal 
education and perhaps a little polish, without so much thought 
upon the part of the public that there was being instilled into 
those boys a loyalty and an efficiency which, in time of need, 
would be one of the greatest assets of the country. But those 
times come about. Not only are our boys following the flag, not 
only were they among the very first to heed the call of the flag, 
whether it waves from the topmast of a ship or on the staff at the 
head of a column, but also in civilian service; in all kinds of 
service to the country they are proving their efficiency. 

Today was service day at the University. It is but fitting 
that this day should close here tonight with a gathering at this 
Club, the University Club. This Club has always fostered uni- 
versity ideals, and in behalf of the University of California I 
want to express to the Club the appreciation of the University 
that it has made itself a part of this memorable week, of this 
Service Week, which we are commemorating at the present time. 

The keynote of loday was to pledge the University to the 
service of the country, a pledge which meant that every uni- 
versity man present, student, regent, representative of other col- 
leges, and faculty member of Berkeley, would stick to this task 
until this war is won. 

We have not been waving bunting and banners to celebrate 
this last week, but we have held a serious gathering: we have 
held, as one of the most important aspects of our commemoration, 
a Congress of International Relations. At the present time, when 
the whole world is upset, when even clouds seem to gather here 
at the Pacific, it seems but proper that serious minded men should 
get together, and, in a scholarly way, should study the situation 



86 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

and analyze it and explain it to the multitude and the masses, 
so that we may not haphazardly take hasty action on any question 
that might confront us here on the Pacific but rather might 
approach in soberness and thoughtfulness any difficulty that may 
arise, and with the proper appreciation of all the facts involved. 
It is only on the basis of a scholarly study of conditions that 
proper international relations can be maintained. And that has 
been the keynote of our commemoration this last week. For that 
purpose, we have brought together most eminent scholars from 
different parts of the world, who have talked to us, and who 
have given us their point of view. It is but fair to say here, 
before you all, that the idea for such a gathering originated with 
the chairman of the committee in charge of the arrangements for 
the commemoration of the fifty years of service of the University, 
Professor Rieber, and also in the mind of Professor Merriam, 
the chairman of the Scientific Committee of the State Defense 
Council. They are the ones to whom we owe the success of the 
great gathering, the great discussions that have taken place at 
Berkeley during the present week. At first some thought that 
the undertaking would not be successful ; but from day to day the 
lecture rooms have become more and more crowded, the people 
have been eager to know the viewpoint of our foreign representa- 
tives, so that the halls of Berkeley were found to be altogether 
too small to accommodate all those who came to hear and to learn. 
We thought that it was particularly fitting at this time that 
the problems of the Pacific should be studied in this locality bor- 
dering on the Pacific, for this locality is perhaps more affected by 
the problems of the Pacific than any other part of the country. 
And the problems that were discussed were not merely of a 
political sort, to be solved diplomatically, as has been so un- 
happily done in the past ; but they go to the very root of the con- 
ditions that underlie political relations. We may have been wrong, 
all wrong, in this idea. We hope not. We may have sinned in this 
direction. But if we have sinned, I might remind you, perhaps, 
of what a very noted representative of the Catholic Church said 
at a recent dinner in the East: "I would rather be a sinner any 
day than a saint, for a saint generally has a past, but a sinner 
has a future. 



BANQUET ADDEESSES 87 



ADDKESS OF DR. A. ROSS HILL, Ph.D., LL.D. 

President of the University of Missouri 

Mr. toastmaster and friends: I have no commission to 
represent the other delegates or the states represented here on 
this auspicious occasion. But I am very glad, indeed, to have the 
privilege of once again enjoying the hospitality of the Univer- 
sity Club of San Francisco, 

This has been a great week. The conferences that we have 
attended at the University have been of unusual significance. 
And I want to say that, somewhat to my surprise, I have found 
that they have been extremely helpful, and that the addresses that 
have been presented have been of a very high order. In fact, 
coming here expecting to spend a week of leisure and to secure a 
rest, I have found myself inclined to act like the chairman of our 
board used to, who attended the classes quite regularly as if he 
expected some sort of demerits if he failed to get around. So 
from Monday morning until this afternoon at six o 'clock, we have 
been following discussions and papers that I think have made the 
week one of very serious import to all the delegates who are 
present. And I want to express to the University and to those 
who have charge of the occasion, the satisfaction those of us feel 
who have come from long distances to attend this fiftieth anni- 
versary. 

I am pleased, indeed, that the University of California has 
taken up the idea at this time of conducting conferences of an 
international nature. The keynote of the situation may be ex- 
pressed by a remark of the first president of my Alma Mater. 
Andrew D. White, when he said, "The man you don't like is the 
man you don't know." I think those of you who are members 
of the University of California faculty appreciate the full sig- 
nificance of that. It applies equally to international relations. 
The people you don't like are the people you don't know. And 
I think we in America have been getting too provincial in our 
knowledge of foreign places. I take it, therefore, that these con- 



88 UNIVEBSIT¥ OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

ferences mark an epoch in the history of relations in America, 
especially states bordering on the Pacific, because of a start in 
an understanding with the peoples in other parts of the world. 

Those of us who have had the privilege of sitting in university 
class rooms and having students come from foreign countries 
have come to have some appreciation of the insight that can be 
secured into other peoples by coming into close contact with them. 
"While we cannot all have such intimate acquaintances, we can 
at least all study the social conditions, industrial development, 
the ideals and ambitions of other nations. 

If I may be permitted a personal reference, I will say that I 
think some of my most interesting experiences as well as most 
valuable, as typified in my own life, came from living in families 
in Munich and Bavaria and Strasburg and Baden-Baden, among 
the southern Germans, and in my association at Cornell University 
with a Japanese who is now a director of a technical school in 
Tokio; also in the experiments in the psychological laboratory 
and in meeting with the students of other countries, not only 
abroad, but in the larger American universities. And this insight 
which one can get in actual human attitudes through contact is 
most helpful in bringing us into a better understanding of our 
relations to other nations. 

I congratulate the University of California upon bringing 
together people from all parts of the United States and from 
other parts of the world for the conferences that have been con- 
ducted this week. And I want to say, in addition, that I am 
especially pleased to have one state university take the lead in 
this matter. Our state universities are the greatest instruments 
we know in this country for the development of a state conscience 
and state consciousness. And they are also, every one of them, 
whether they have agricultural colleges attached or not, federal 
institutions as well ; and some of them have received more stim- 
ulus through their federal relations than through their state 
relations. It is a happy idea that a state university has been the 
first in this country to step forward from the mere traditional 
state connections, to those which are national and international, 
and to help lead the people of the country in that direction. And 
I trust it will be the task hereafter, not only of our state univer- 
sities but of our national universities, that are running on the 



BANQUET ADDBESSES 89' 

basis of private endowment, to develop on the part of all their 
students not only a state pride and national pride and conscious- 
ness but also to develop the international mind and the inter- 
racial mind. If the conference which has been conducted this 
week will prove to have been significant in bringing that about, 
it will be of great value in the development of our larger national 
life. 

Let me say one word in relation to the University of Cali- 
fornia itself. I want to extend my own felicitations, on behalf 
of my own university and on behalf of other institutions that may 
permit me to represent them on this occasion, upon the completion 
of the fiftieth year of its history. The record of the University 
of California has been a most honorable record among the insti- 
tutions of this country. Few universities of its short history 
have contributed so many significant names in the various lines 
of scientific and literary instruction. Who does not know among 
the educational men of the country names like Howison and 
Hilgard, and many others who have graced the chairs in the 
University of California from the beginning of its brief history, 
names that are still fresh in the minds of all of us who have passed 
through universities as students in recent years. And the record 
that they made has been extremely significant in the development 
of that spirit which has made the University of California grow 
so rapidly in other respects in more recent years. The rapid 
development of its enrollment, and in still more recent years the 
construction of such splendid and fully equipped buildings has 
been a record that has given to some of us at times a feeling of 
despair but at other times has been to us a ringing challenge and 
a great comfort. Because we feel that what the State of Cali- 
fornia has been able so quickly to do in the development of a 
great state university may be possible in time for some of our 
older and more conservative commonwealths. 

I take it, however, upon an occasion like this, that a university 
as young as is the University of California is, after all, inclined to 
look mostly to the future. She has not on her campus yet, in 
spite of all the splendid buildings that have been erected recently, 
come to have that calm and statuesque beauty of countenance that 
is born only of the travail of many generations. But while she 
lacks the transfiguring beauty of age she wears today the fresh 



90 UNITEESITY OF CALIFORNIA 8EMICENTENABY 

color of a vigorous prime. Hers is still the portion of youth, 
youth with its faith, its incredible hope, its superabundant energy ,^ 
its tingling sense of activity that does not count upon the past, 
that does not dwell so much upon the records of the past, but, 
rather, upon the promise of the unrivalled present, and we pre- 
dict for the University of California a splendid future. 



BANQUET ADDEESSES 91 



THE SPECIAL CONTRIBUTION OF FRANCE TO THE 
INTERNATIONAL IDEA 

Charles Cestre 

Professor of English Literature at the University of Bordeaux, 

Special Eepresentative of the Minister of Public 

Instruction of France 

Mr. president and gentlemen: It is not without emotion 
that I rise to address you this evening, after the enthusiastic and 
significant demonstration which has been given in favor of 
France. If I am here to be an interpreter of France to America 
you may be sure that I shall not fail to be an interpreter of 
America to France, and to mention, with all the emphasis that 
it deserves, the treatment that I have received at your hands 
tonight. 

Gentlemen, after having heard the addresses and lectures 
delivered at this celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the 
University of California, all bearing on international disquisitions 
and forecasts I should be lacking in the sense of harmony if I did 
not stick to that very domain, and did not try to do my small, but 
I hope somewhat useful share in this worthy attempt. And in 
that respect I think I ought to address you very briefly tonight 
on the special contribution of France to the international idea. 

"We have not always practiced the international doctrine. 
You know that the international doctrine in practice is young. 
The history of my country is formed of dark pages and bright 
pages, just as is the history of every country. But I may say 
without boasting that what characterizes France is that in the 
course of her long existence she has been able to learn from her 
own history as well as from the history of the world. When some 
nations (whom I need not point out) are as willing and as ready 
to learn from the history of the world and their own as we have 
been we shall be nearer to the dreamed of peace. 

In spite of some dark pages in our past (they are not perhaps 
irretrievably so), the French are proud of their past, of all the 
endeavors of the nation to build the character of the nation. 



92 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

There are periods of which we are no longer proud. One of them 
is the time of the Napoleons. But in spite of our Napoleonism and 
some dark pages of our history, I may say that the thinkers of 
France, those who have built at the same time the ideals of their 
country and a part of the ideal of aU the world, have done a great 
deal to establish the basis for international principles. 

It was in our great eighteenth century that there was con- 
ceived and expressed, for the first time, the idea of international 
amity between nations. At that moment a great movement ap- 
peared in French thought, indeed in connection with the whole 
thought of Europe, not exclusively creative, in part inherited 
from the great past of mankind, but in some parts which were 
an especial contribution of France. Right at that moment, in 
the eightenth century, our great philosophers for the first time 
gave solemn and persuasive expression to two great motives, the 
motive of human sympathy, the love that ought to exist amongst 
all men, and the idea of right, based upon just reasoning, upon 
the faith in man rising by the effort of his intellect above the 
fatalities of the physical world, above the materialistic necessities, 
which had been considered thus far as inevitable and unsur- 
mountable. War was one of those physical necessities; and our 
ancestors thought that it was possible for men to rise above war, 
as it was possible to rise above despotism and tyranny. And the 
same men who were the founders of democracy — ^the men from 
whom your Franklin and your Jefferson learned part of their 
American idealism — also spoke for the first time, long before it 
could be carried into practice, about an international understand- 
ing between nations. One of them is Abbe de St. Pierre, with his 
proposal for perpetual peace among nations, an idea that was 
developed later on by Kant, the German philosopher, by his own 
confession a disciple of the French philosophers of the eighteenth 
century. Abbe de St. Pierre was an imaginative idealist, who 
thought it was possible, as some pacificists of our own time have 
also thought, to bring about peace by holding out your hands and 
calling upon all men to agree and hail one another as brothers. 
He proposed that the great nations should get together and form 
a sort of committee to arrange all differences and sign peace, 
among them. It was wildly Utopian, but still, the idea had been 
expressed in a book. That idea was taken up a few years after- 



BANQUET ADDEESSES 93 

wards by Jean Jacques Eousseau, a man of very mucli keener 
mind and very much more alive to a sense of the realities, and 
he wrote a book upon Abbe de St. Pierre's proposal for perpetual 
peace in which he sided with him, declared his enthusiasm and 
approbation of his conception of internationalism, but criticized 
and corrected some of his ideas. And it is from Jean Jacques 
Eousseau especially that a reasonable and sane idea of inter- 
nationalism arises, just as it is from him also that the idea of 
democracy in its universality arises. 

Jean Jacques Rousseau said we must reach the idea of a legal 
status between nations, while preserving the great motive power 
of patriotism. As President Hill said a moment ago, ' ' We cannot 
like those whom we do not know. ' ' And Jean Jacques Rousseau, 
as a keen psychologist, luiderstood that it was impossible to ex- 
tend our sympathy to people who lived at the other end of the 
world, and especially in his day when communication with distant 
lands was hardly possible. It was the time when his contem- 
porary, Montesquie, said, ' * How can a man be a Persian ? ' ' He 
thought it was impossible for a man to have real sympathy for 
those with whom he had no direct contact, and he said, "Let us 
build a conception of a comity of nations upon the real existence 
of nations, upon the real fact of nations keeping their patriotism, 
that admirable force, provided it is a patriotism that is not 
selfish, provided it is not a mere outburst of instinct and appetite 
and brutal force, provided it is a reasonable patriotism, made 
both of feeling and of reason." And therein lies the greatness 
of the philosophy of the eighteenth century in France: that it 
sought to bring together and to combine in harmonious propor- 
tion both feeling and reason. 

Then Rousseau proposed a thing which materialized very 
much later, a federation of the small states, that would have kept 
the balance with some of the greater states. And there we see 
a first and prophetic sketch of the idea of the neutrality of the 
small states. Nobody had spoken of neutrality. There was just 
one country that was actually enjoying some sort of neutrality, 
Switzerland, because she happened to be within high and then 
impassable mountains, and had been able to defend herself, keep- 
ing the admirable spirit of liberty, which is still symbolized today 
in Wilhelm Tell. 



•94 UmVEESITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

Starting from this actual view of the independence of Switzer- 
land, Jean Jacques Rousseau conceived without expressing it 
very distinctly, the idea of neutrality, an idea, gentlemen, which 
you feel is one of the essential bases of the future international 
organization of nations; because it is only when small nations 
are guaranteed against the inroads of powerful and ambitious 
and land-grabbing nations, it is only then that we can have some 
hope for stability in an international organization. 

That was the beginning : the idea of doing away with war in 
the future, perhaps by some legal organization of the world, 
based upon an international law which would be the natural 
development of the new principle of "right" that was rising in 
the minds of men and that was going to blossom forth a very 
few years afterwards in the American democracy. 

Democracy, as it was understood in the philosophy of our 
French thinkers of the eighteenth century, as it was developed in 
America at the end of the eighteenth century, and as it was 
attempted to be developed by France at the time of the French 
Eevolution, is based upon the idea of justice. Justice is the basic 
conception of liberty. As soon as men conceived an aspiration 
for liberty, because they had acquired a sense of their own 
dignity, of their inviolability as human and moral persons, as 
soon as they had that sense of liberty in connection with the social 
sense, the idea of justice was born. A man who feels a right to 
his own individual liberty, must, through his reason and sym- 
pathy, understand that his neighbor, citizen of the same state, is 
entitled to the same right, and that is the basis of democracy. 

The sense of justice, extended beyond the pale of the state to 
the society of states, was to determine the policy of nations 
toward each other. It is the natural outgrowth of the idea of 
democracy. The nation that consists of a collectivity of indi- 
viduals, that owns a collective soul, which is the sum total of the 
individual souls of the citizens, ought to have a right to its 
personality and its inviolability. There ought to exist justice 
among nations, just as democracy required and claimed that there 
should exist justice among individuals. 

Then the two things were born at the same time, the idea of 
democracy and the idea of a legal status among nations. They 
were born from the same two great movements of rationalism and 



BANQUET ADDBESSES 95 

ot human sympathy. After that came the French Revolution, 
which was a gigantic attempt to realize in a few years such great 
changes that probably they were bound to meet with immediate 
failure, although they sowed the germs of momentous progress 
for the future. 

You know that the French Revolution was deviated from its 
regular course by the coalition of despots. Yet in its earlier 
years, in the first years in which it was allowed to develop norm- 
ally, one of the first things which France did was to borrow a 
word from our great historian Michelet : "to declare peace to the 
world. ' ' And she welcomed the great men of all nations, declar- 
ing them citizens of the French Republic and citizens of the 
world. Your Thomas Paine was one of them. 

Then came the dark period when sorely tried France had to 
surrender herself into the hands of a strong man, who restored 
order, but monopolized the admirable elmi of the French nation 
for his own purpose of world dominion. As soon as France had 
recovered herself and resumed the normal development of her 
historic course she again tried to realize the international idea. 
And she based it now upon the new principle born of the French 
Revolution, a principle which is only an extension of the rights 
of man applied to the relations between states, the right of every 
nation to patriotic loyalty and to independence. France, I am 
glad to say, in connection with England, did all she could in the 
nineteenth century to promote, disinterestedly, sometimes at the 
cost of great sacrifice, the ' ' principle of nationality. ' ' This prin- 
ciple of nationality had become a concrete principle first through 
the birth of the American nation. The first time the principle 
of nationality was affirmed and established in history was here 
in America. Then the French nation, in a gigantic struggle 
against autocratic Europe, affirmed the principle for herself and 
established a noble form of enlightened patriotism. Then, in- 
volimtarily, Napoleon helped the principle of nationality by 
arousing and very justly and naturally arousing, the spirit of 
patriotism in Germany, that thus far, as you Imow, had not 
existed as a nation. And France struggled through the nine- 
teenth century to help other nations to come to a realization of 
themselves, to grow and develop and live. The first attempt was 
made, in connection with England, for Greece, and Greece was 



96 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

restored to her own integrity as in the ancient times. And then 
we fought for Italy, driving the Austrians out of the northern 
provinces. French blood flowed upon the fields of Italy, to liber- 
ate Italy. And then we tried, you know, to restore Poland, how- 
ever far away Poland was. And the Poles have ever been grate- 
ful to us. A great many emigrated to us ; they are an important 
element of the intellectual and artistic part of our population, 
and today they manifest their gratefulness by forming a Polish 
army on French soil of 200,000 men. 

We have been favorable to the development of German unity. 
That Third Napoleon of ours, that poor puppet of a ruler, had 
at any rate that saving grace, that he was an idealist, even to the 
detriment of French interests; and, to the great damage of 
French history, he helped to the formation of German unity. 
And we should not regret it, if Germany had made good use of 
it. We could not believe, nor could we forsee, that that form of 
patriotism, which results from the unification of a nation and 
which, in our idea, should be the great force of the world, could 
be perverted and distorted back to mere physical force, to the 
mere impulse of instinctive and brutal might, and become the 
support and stay of ferocious barbarians. Napoleon helped, 
through his diplomacy and otherwise, German unity. 

This principle of nationality was an essential principle of 
France in the nineteenth century. Then, after the severe lesson 
that we received in 1870 (at which time we had still some traces 
of the old militarism) we entirely abjured and disowned militar- 
ism, and if France has remained a military nation it has been for 
the purposes of defense, increasing her army reluctantly, in a 
small degree, after some huge step of the German army, which 
was always there in a threatening and menacing attitude : we 
abjured militarism, and we gave proof of it by helping, along 
with the civilized nations of the world, in furthering the idea of 
arbitration and the formation of a conference for peace among 
nations. We went to The Hague in good faith, and we put down 
our signature to the treaties in good faith. And we intended to 
stick to our word. We did not give a signature with the secret 
thought of breaking our word as soon as it might be convenient 
for our interests and our ambitions. 



BANQUET ADDBESSES 97 

We have done our part, ever since the eighteenth century and 
through the nineteenth century, to carry out this international 
idea. And how do we conceive it ? It is good to dwell upon this 
a few moments, because words of internationalism, mere words, 
are falling from the mouths of our enemies. Some of their 
theorists, some of their most stubborn militarists, have spoken 
about internationalism. One of their thinkers, a great scientist, 
who calls himself a philosopher at the same time, the chemist 
Ostwald, claims to be an internationalist and even a pacificist. 
How does he understand it? If we take the doctrine of Ostwald 
all nations organized so that they should become efficient should 
be under the absolute and tyrannous leadership of Germany. 
"The age of individualism is past," Ostwald said. Your indi- 
vidualism, gentlemen, our individualism, the individualism that 
France, England, and America have cooperated in forming, and 
which we consider to be the future ideal of the world — that indi- 
vidualism is superannuated. "We ought to overcome it," he 
said, A period of "organization" has arisen, and organization 
means, first, submission of the individual to the state, according 
to the Prussian idea, and, secondly, the enslaving of all nations 
under the iron rule of Germany. And, in proper terms, we and 
you should all be compelled, after the triumph of Germany, to 
labor as workmen under German foremen. Germany, Ostwald 
says, would discover the best ability of each people, and they 
would be put to work at the task which they were most capable 
of doing. That would be the ' ' organization ' ' of the world. ' ' 

It is not in this manner, by conquest and kaiserism, that we 
want to enforce the international status of the future. I am not 
exaggerating ! Ostwald is not the only one who said it. I might 
mention the name of a German scholar, a prominent scholar who 
stands high among famous investigators, the great Hellenist 
Williamowitz Moellendorf, a man who was, through his studies, 
in contact with the great thought of ancient Greece, and who 
ought to have laiown better. In a lecture at the beginning of 
the war, he said, "There cannot be any international law. So 
the only future of the world is : all the nations disarmed and 
among them Germany alone fully armed. ' ' But another expres- 
sion of the theory of Ostwald. And the German jurists come 



98 VNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

along to confirm this conception. They say the idea of "right" 
upon which those superannuated forms of political organization, 
such as the American democracy, the French democracy, and 
British liberty are founded, is false ; the idea of right does not 
exist, it is a mere notion. Law does not depend upon right, they 
say, it depends upon historical necessity. Such laws as prevail 
today are the outcome, within the precincts of each nation, of 
custom, empiricism, material determinism; in other words, an 
application of the famous formula "might is right." 

We are very far from this conception, when we, Americans, 
French, English, and the other allied nations representing the 
civilized ideals of the world, speak of internationalism. First, 
internationalism rests upon that very idea of "right" that arose 
in the eighteenth century, best expressed by the French phil- 
osophers, when they said, ' ' We want to rest the new international 
status of the world upon right and justice. We want all nations, 
even the small and weak nations, to be respected, just as we 
respect a citizen who is our neighbor and co-liver in our city or 
in our state." The nation that exists through racial, geographic, 
historical, and spiritual causes, is a moral entity, has a person- 
ality, has actually a soul which we must respect. Shall we forget 
what Flanders, that today we call Belgium, has done in the past, 
with that indomitable spirit of liberty, with all the benefits she 
has conferred upon the world by handing down arts and crafts 
to our generation? Shall we forget what a nation like Greece, 
with a great past, has done for the world? They are small 
nations, occupying but a small area on the map of the world, but 
they are great by their intellect, by their creative genius, by their 
artistic imagination, by their moral preeminence. Those nations 
have a right to live, because they brought into the world some 
of the vital force through which the world has lived, and which, 
if it did not exist, the world would not be worth living in. They 
have a right to exist, they have a right to develop, to reach the 
utmost consummation of their destiny. If they are not strong 
by the number of their inhabitants or by their military organiza- 
tion they ought to be protected. Then the idea of neutrality 
comes up. 



BANQUET ADDEESSES 99 

When this respect for the moral and spiritual causes in the 
world, when this idealism that rises above mere materialism 
or the mere conception of the world based upon might and 
upon instinct and upon brute force — when this idealism has 
triumphed, then we can apply the principles of right, then we 
can have international law, and expect that good faith among 
the nations will bring about the prevalence of international order, 
just as good faith among citizens makes life and civilized order 
possible in the state. I feel sure, gentlemen, that our two demo- 
cratic countries agree absolutely in this ideal. 

I have no apprehension in speaking about internationalism 
today, because you have come to understand — after several years 
in which the whole meaning of this struggle has not come to you, 
living so far and in such different relations from the Old World 
— now, you have come to understand the full significance of this 
struggle, and you have outgrown that phase of internationalism 
which we, over there, could only look upon with apprehension and 
anxiety, the internationalism which was fused with pacificism. 
We are pacificists at heart. But when you are living very near, 
elbow to elbow, with a nation armed to the teeth, and which is a 
thievish nation, and, as she has proved later on, a murderous 
nation, you cannot speak of peace. And besides, remember that 
history, since the days of Israel and antiquity and Christianity, 
with all of the vicissitudes through which the world has passed, 
shows that no great progress in the world has been won except 
through great sacrifice. We are fighting in one of the great 
crises of the history of the world, analogous to the advent of 
Christianity and to the French Eevolution and other gigantic 
struggles for liberty that some of the smaller nations have had 
to go through. We are fighting, let us hope, in the last of the 
great crises of the world, and out of this may there arise a better 
future, a peaceful future ! 

You have understood at last, and there has been great joy in 
France, when we heard it ; you have understood that you have to 
fight for this great boon of the future, international law and 
peace among nations. It has been a great joy, not only because 
you bring to us your resources, which are enormous, and we 
measure the full extent of them, but because we are the nation 



100 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

that is most sensitive to moral forces. A former Chancellor of 
Germany, Herr von Biilow, in a rather famous book, which many 
of you have read on the World Politics of Germany, treating of 
the subject of the relations of France and Germany, writes this 
sentence : ' ' A strange people that places psychic causes foremost 
above their material interests. ' ' A strange nation, indeed ! Ger- 
many thus far has been unable to understand that there could 
be a moral sense among nations. But now we know that you 
have come to feel with us in this conception, and I have had no 
hesitation of any sort in treating before you this question of 
internationalism and of the peaceful relations of the future, 
because I feel confident that you are resolute, determined to 
march with us, hand in hand, through hardship and through 
triumph, to the final victory. 

Vive I'Amerique! 



BANQUET ADDBESSES 101 



VISION AND RECONSTRUCTION 

Professor Masaharu Anesaki 

of the Imperial University of Tokyo 

Mr. president, and my friends and colleagues : I want to 
express my sincere gratitude, doubly, indeed trebly, because I 
have to thank, first of all, this country, to which we as a nation, 
and I myself personally owe so much, and to the University of 
California, which has educated many of our young men and 
which has, moreover, in this celebration organized the Confer- 
ence on International Relations, and has invited our University 
to participate in that; also I have to thank the University of 
California for this generous invitation, not only personally but 
in the name of the University of Tokyo, to which I belong; and 
then I have to thank this Club for the generous hospitality ex- 
tended to me together with other guests. 

In this club room I see the flags and colors of various colleges. 
Seeing those, and reflecting that I am now in San Francisco, I 
cannot help thinking of a story once told to me by my revered 
friend and colleague in Harvard, the late Professor Royce. As all 
of you probably know, he was a San Francisconian, if I may coin 
the word. He often told me, ' You don 't know how interesting it 
is to me, a Californian, that I have you, a Japanese, here before 
me. In looking back to my boyhood days I remember vividly 
how I gazed at the first steamer of the Pacific Mail sailing from 
the harbor of San Francisco for Japan. It was on the first of 
January, in the year 1864." [I may be mistaken in this date, 
because I am not a historian, and I do not know the exact date, 
but somewhere about that date.] "At that time," he said, 
"Japan was something like a dream to my boyish mind. But 
now you are among us, and I not only know that but I know 
what you are thinking and what you feel; that is, I am well 
acquainted with your intellectual life, your moral sentiments, and 
your ideal aspirations. They are all unrolled before me, and are 
in close personal touch with me. What I thought to be a dream 



102 VNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

land is not a dream land, but a reality linked with us in many 
ways. And here we are colleagues and frineds on the shores of 
the Atlantic Ocean." 

Now, in thinking of this, and in thinking that I am here, a 
guest of this University Club of San Francisco, and seeing all 
the banners of the various colleges, I cannot but think also of a 
recent address made by your Ambassodar, Mr, Eoland Morris, 
in a meeting of the American University Club of Tokyo. Among 
other things he told us about the privileges and responsibilities 
of university men in the coming reconstruction, or it may be 
re-creation, of the world, of humanity. He said: "There are 
perhaps two points which we must care for, for the future of 
mankind ; we must exert to the full our vision and our elasticity 
of mind. First, the vision that sees beyond the complexities of 
the present and opens a wide mental vista ; and, closely connected 
with that vision must be the elasticity of mind, the power of 
insight, the power which can perceive something in the depths 
of events and of occurrences." 

There is no need of dwelling upon those two points. I may 
perhaps be allowed to assume that I myself am an ambassador 
from your own Ambassador in Tokyo. To use a business term, 
I am re-importing what your own Ambassador has exported from 
this port to Japan. I only hope your Ambassador will not claim 
the copyright of his utterances, and that the collector of customs 
of San Francisco will agree not to examine my spiritual cargo. 

I think there is no need of saying that we university men, 
assembled here, our brethren and fellows from the world over, 
have a great task to achieve (and I hope at a not far distant day 
our former colleagues from Germany may cooperate with us) for 
the coming reconstruction and re-creation of the world and its 
civilization. This can be accomplished only by the leadership of 
university men, who are endowed with vision and insight and 
know how to work out a remoulding of humanity on the basis 
of justice and reason and peace, as our colleague. Professor Cestre, 
has just now so eloquently and precisely laid before us. 

One other matter occurs to my mind, and I want to be per- 
mitted to tell a story to you that illustrates the power of vision. 
It may be a trifling incident of vision, yet it means something for 
me at least. More than sixty-seven years ago — that is, before the 



BANQUET ADDBESSES 103 

coming of Commander Perry's fleet to the harbor of Uraga — 
several of the Japanese, the men looking for a new Japan, stood 
for the opening of the country and gave warning admonition to 
the nation. One of them, Takano by name, wrote a book, in which 
he had a sentence which ran, ' ' Is not the water washing the shores 
of Yedo, of one continuity with the waters running under London 
Bridge?" I don't know how he knew the name of London 
Bridge — surely he had not seen it. That was almost a vision. 
The Japanese people of those days took him as a mere visionary. 
Worse than that, the government authorities thought a man of 
that kind was a dangerous man, instigating people to useless 
speculations, and put him into a dungeon and sentenced him to 
death. So it was that one of the pioneers of new Japan sacrificed 
his life for a bit of this vision, which is a commonplace fact before 
us now. Yet it was a vision on his part, and, in the eyes of the 
authorities of that time, a dangerous thought, threatening and 
exciting the people. But the vision has triumphed, idealism has 
triumphed, and we have the new Japan. 

But I shall not dwell further on vision or elasticity of mind, 
which you know better than I, because I have learned this from 
your Ambassador. But one point which I wish to tell you is 
this, that I have come to this country at this time to tender our 
congratulations to the University of California. The University 
is now celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of its birth, and 
especially so tomorrow, on its Charter Day. That charter was 
granted in the year 1868, just the year when our country, Japan, 
opened its new era, and thus I find it very interesting and some- 
thing significant to me. But in every way, the mission, the 
responsibilities of university men will prove more and more 
important in the future reconstruction of the world ; and I hope 
that not only the two countries, but the two universities on the 
two sides of the Pacific, may cooperate for this reconstruction and 
re-creating of the world. 



104 VNIVEESITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

THE NAVY 

Captain Egbert Russell 

The toastmaster: Gentlemen, before proposing a health to 
the Army and Navy, I feel as if I must say a word about the 
part the university men are playing in the present war. I notice 
from the figures that I have seen that Yale now has five thousand 
men in the army and navy, that it has two thousand of its men 
in civil governmental situations, and over a thousand men are 
on the other side now; they have an honor list, men who have 
already given their lives, of over forty, something like forty-two 
men have already been decorated for conspicuous bravery. I 
haven't the figures of other universities, but I know that they, 
too, will equal the showing that Yale has made. I would like to 
propose a toast, and ask you all to rise and drink to the United 
States Army and Navy. 

I shall now introduce to you Captain Robert Russell, who 
will respond to the toast, "The Navy." 

Mr. toastmaster: After listening to the very eloquent ad- 
dresses of the gentlemen who have preceded me, a sense of 
modesty possesses me, and I shall take very little of your time in 
what. I shall have to say. 

But it may be interesting to you all to know that our navy is 
expanding all the time. From a very small navy a year ago, we 
have expanded until we now have several thousand more officers 
than we had less than a year ago. We have hundreds of thous- 
ands more men than we had at that time. "We have also at the 
same time increased our navy, we have a great many more ships 
than we had a year ago. Better than that, I want to assure you 
that the spirit of our navy is still high ; I believe the spirit of our 
navy tonight, in the face of war, will measure up to the spirit 
of the men with John Paul Jones, will measure up to the spirit 
of the men who served in the war with Tripoli, the men who 
served in the War of 1812, the men who served in the Civil War, 
under David Farragut, and the spirit of the men in the Spanish- 
American War, under George Dewey, 



BANQUET ADDBESSES 105 

The navy has but one thought and that is the winning of the 
war. Everyhing else must take a back seat. We do not enter 
into what caused the war, we do not trouble yet about what shall 
be done when the war is over. But everything, every man, every 
officer, must do his full share of the very best possible work that 
is in him for the winning of the war. That is the whole thought. 

Here, standing before university men, I wish also to thank 
the universities for the cordial cooperation which they have given 
us. Here in my own particular territory the University of Cali- 
fornia has done us great service, is today carrying on classes in 
preparation for naval service, and is supplementing the work 
we are doing ourselves and which we would not otherwise be able 
fully to undertake. I saw the University of California today 
unfurl its flag with 2200 stars for its sons now serving in the army 
and navy of the United States. Other universities throughout the 
country are also helping. In the east and in the central part of 
the counry and in the west the spirit of our people is high ; and 
I feel that we can count on you, and I believe that you will be 
justified in counting on us. The one thought and the one slogan 
with all of us is, "We must win the war." 



106 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 



THE ARMY 

Major Warren, U. S. A. 

The toastmaster: I give you the toast, "The Army of the 
United States," and I will call upon Major "Warren to respond. 

Mr. toastmaster and gentlemen : I wish it were really pos- 
sible for me to answer to such a toast as "The Army of the 
United States. ' ' But I find that it is quite beyond me to express 
properly an appropriate response. 

As I sat here tonight wondering what I really would say, 
there was one thought that came into my mind, and that was with 
reference to one's own individual service flag in his own heart. 
This country is today in the business of war, and of nothing else. 
It must be in the business of war. And when tonight you go 
home and on the service flag of your own heart you put a star 
for something that you have done individually towards winning 
the war, it will be the end of a perfect day for you. 



BANQUET ADDBESSES 107 



ADDRESSES AT THE BANQUET OF THE ALUMNI 

ASSOCIATION OF THE UNIVERSITY 

OF CALIFORNIA 

Chaetee Day 

Toastmaster, Mr, Wiggington E. Creed, President of the 
Alumni Association 

INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS 

WiGGiNGTON E. Creed 
President of the Alumni Association 

President wheeler, alumni op California, and guests : The 
alumni of California welcome the visitors and delegates to our 
semicentenary observances, and bid them carry back to the 
alumni of their institutions our message that we join with them 
in dedicating ourselves to revere and to work for the common 
ideals of the institution we call Mother. 

We have become accustomed at our Charter Day observances 
to take stock. We have grown into the habit of considering our 
material progress and our material needs, our spiritual needs and 
our spiritual progress, at each Charter Day ; and on this occasion, 
we have taken stock with a broader and a deeper significance 
than ever before. We have not only considered what we have 
been, what we have become, what we are to be ; not only have we 
reaffirmed the ideals we were founded to foster and to cherish, 
but we have considered the part we are to play and are playing 
in meeting the problems which confront the world today and 
those problems as great which will confront the world when peace 
is here. It was, therefore, particularly fitting that President 
Hutchins should have given us that resume of the forces and 
causes which have placed us at war ; should have made that review 
of the duties and obligations we owe at this time, and suggested 
those dangers to which we must be alive when peace comes. May 
those words go far over this State and Nation. It was worth 
while to have heard them ; it is worth while to spread them. 



108 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

We alumni who have come back here have learned anew many- 
things of our great institution. We have seen the semicentenary 
publications, and have learned again that this great institution 
of ours fosters research. To our minds the foundation stone of 
the University is the spirit of research, and the opportunity for 
research amongst the scholars that make its faculty. And we are 
glad as alumni to know that our university has not only fostered 
and encouraged research, but that it has established a system of 
publications whereby the results of those labors may be recorded 
for the world. 

Again, on this several days' visit, we have learned that our 
University is doing a great deal of practical work and that it is 
doing it in a university way. But it has done our hearts good 
to learn that notwithstanding the competition for the efforts of 
the University and for the funds allotted to it to be directed 
toward practical ends our University has held true to the pur- 
pose of its foundation, and has fostered, protected, and encour- 
aged the humanities. We feel a debt of gratitude to Henry 
Durant that he wrote into the organic act creating the University 
that there must be in the University of California a College of 
Letters, and that that College of Letters should embrace a liberal 
education in English literature and philosophy. That mandate 
in the organic act has helped to put in the minds of the men of 
this State the need for a broad culture which gives men new 
interests and opens up vistas which give to men the capacity to 
write into life truth and honor. And there can be no doubt that 
the existence of that act, with that mandate in it, has done much 
to put into the minds of our legislators the spirit and the will to 
support both the practical things and the things of culture. 

As we look back over the years. President Wheeler, we have 
realized that you have come to us when we cried aloud for 
leadership. You found us, as you said, potentially great. We 
were like our torrential streams, untouched by the hand of 
science. Yours was the vision to lead, to control, and to dis- 
cipline. That mission you have fulfilled. In gratitude for what 
you have done, for what you have been, and what you have 
meant to us, the Alumni of California salute you. President 
Wheeler. 



BANQUET ADDBESSES 109" 



ADDRESS OF BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER 

President of the University of California 

Mr. toastmaster, loyal calipornians : This is no time for 
me to speak. You have heard enough from me today. Yet 1 
have come here just to give you one thought : the half century 
has gone. Though you feel pity for it, though you yearn for it, 
it has gone. North Hall is only a torso, and that torso will last 
only a few months. The fifty years are gone. We are in the 
second half century. Turn your faces toward the future, men 
and women of the Alumni Association. Consider what is your 
obligation in belonging to the body of the Alumni of this Uni- 
versity. 

Is there any institution which holds a place like this — speak 
only, if you will, in terms of geography — and do you know what 
the second half century calls for? No small thing. What we 
have been doing is shaking off our swaddling clothes. We are 
emerging into our work. The little catalogue of the semicen- 
tenary publications means more in expressing what this Univer- 
sity must be, yearns to be, compels itself to be than any of its: 
outward foundations. 

The half century is gone. Let us gird ourselves for the second' 
half. There stands a University, just begun in its work, with 
traditions that are fortunate, traditions brought over here from 
the old college at Oakland which were fortunate. It kept there 
at Berkeley from the very beginning in hearty glow a study of 
the humanities, — a larger, a more generous outlook. That insti- 
tution is in many ways in its past. But the half century has gone. 
We turn our faces toward the second half. In that must be 
fulfilled those indications of the place which the University must 
hold. Great things must come. What is there now is a sugges- 
tion. We can think of it in no other way. A college that looks 
out, as this does, upon the bay and then upon the ocean beyond,, 
must have come to know its place and its demands. 



110 UNIVBBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SFMICENTENABY 

Material things we must have. This beginning of a system 
of buildings must, of course, be carried out. First of all we must 
have the Student Union, Alumni Hall. We must have a great, 
generous auditorium, with an organ in it. And that means some- 
thing in terms of the spiritual life. We must fill in the gaps, 
beginning at the central nucleus. A building must go up where 
North Hall came out, speedily. The Law Building must be com- 
pleted. South Hall must be razed, and the building that goes 
there put in its place. We must begin the great museum that is 
to crown that splendid knoll where now stands the little build- 
ings of the Astronomical Department. That building must carry 
the things to be housed in a museum; we promised it, the state 
required it and promised it all in one breath, in the organic act. 
The museum then, is one of the first things to look out for; and 
there we must bring together all of the materials, whether artistic 
or scientific, that belong in a museum. That will fill the center. 
Then come the laboratories up in the region of Bacon Hall, east- 
ward. Questions will arise of this building or that building. 
That will be settled with the time. But we have got to have 
cared-for open playgrounds for the students. We are hampered 
now. We are to have all that land reaching to Bancroft way, in 
the immediate vicinity of the University, for level playgrounds. 
There is no use putting them off at a distance, except as places 
where we may hold our pageants, such as the annual football 
games and baseball games and this and that. But we must have 
opportunity for healthy play and for military drill directly in 
the neighborhood of the University. 

We can't think for a moment of being stingy about those 
things. That which is in contemplation is too big for small talk. 
Whether or not we go to the ridge is not worth talking about — 
of course we go to the ridge. And the little sum of money that 
is talked about or involved in barring our way to the ridge behind 
the University cannot hold us back a moment. Those will be 
nearest right who in things pertaining to the University of Cali- 
fornia think largest. Because the situation there is not one call- 
ing for small talk, I repeat, but for large views. The days are 
coming soon when vastly more will be needed there than we have 
today. We will pay then for what we have. Generosity on the 
part of this State unparalleled has marked the gifts of the State 



BANQUET ADDBESSE8 111 

in these most recent years. Friends have arisen to help us 
mightily. - In the eighteen years that I have seen this University 
we have averaged nearly $500,000 a year of gifts. There are 
evidently people in the world who care for the University. There 
are a great many provisions that I know of as already made. 
Even this year, one after another, came in the splendid gifts. 
They are mostly for scholarships. We need gifts for equipment ; 
we must have further endowment, on a large scale, of chairs. 

What a fine thing it is, when you think of it, that Mrs. Sather, 
hy careful management of her own affairs, in twelve years saved 
enough to endow two professorships, each with $120,000 ; that she 
added for the support of those two chairs book funds, one of 
$10,000, one of $15,000— in fact, two of $15,000 each— a book 
fund also in law, the Sather Gate, the Sather Tower, the Esplan- 
ade below the Tower, and finally, the bells at the top of the Tower, 
all given by one woman out of her savings, practically, for twelve 
years. She had a joy in it. 

And there are many such. And we look wrong who look 
small, for the case is wide and large. The work that is to be done 
there in the next fifty years is enormous, wide-spreading, great, 
as compared with the work that has been done in these years 
now closed. 

All blessing, all credit to those who have labored and loved in 
this half century that is past. All help to the elbows of those 
who work for the needs of the half century to come. I know 
what your spirit is. I have dwelt enough with these men and 
women who have become and are becoming alumni of this Uni- 
versity to know that they will tolerate no small view of what this 
University is to be. Let us join in one accord to help in every 
way to make that university all that its place before men and 
under God and in the world demand. 



112 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAB7 



ADDRESS OF WILLIAM M. SLOANE, Ph.D., L.H.D., LL.D. 

Seth Low Professor of History, Columbia University 

Fellow alumni and alumnae : Not quite the youngest infant 
of the great University of California, but pretty nearly, because 
I represent a university which, in its situation, in its ideals, in a 
certain sense in its achievements, is a sister university to the 
very highest degree. 

It was Mr. Lowell who said that when Columbus knocked at 
the front door of the Indies, he found himself at the back door 
of America. From our hilltop in New York we look out across a 
bay, not so beautiful as yours, but the bay through which you 
and your ancestors, for the most part, entered the country; and 
as I stand in President Wheeler 's house and look out through the 
Golden Gate I cannot but draw a parallel, however imperfect,, 
between the physical situations of the two universities. 

But we are bound by closer ties, even, than that. The long, 
intimate affection and friendship which my President, Butler, has 
for your great President, Wheeler, is one of the reasons why I 
am here to bring not only his personal greeting, but the greeting- 
of his university, which in a very high measure he has made what 
it is, as President Wheeler has made yours. 

A dear friend of mine was appointed on a commission to 
examine the insane asylums of the state of Connecticut, and in 
the corridor of the harmless ward he found a man astride of a 
trunk, an empty trunk, but with straps, and he was galloping 
away down the hall, manifestly enjoying himself tremendously. 
As my friend approached him, it was dear old Dr. Fisher of Yale, 
he said, ' ' Sir, that is a fine horse you have. ' ' The other replied, 
"Horse? This is no horse. If it was a horse, I could get off.. 
This is a hobby." I have a hobby, and I can't get off from it. 
In these days of stress, it is time to take stock, as our toastmaster 
so aptly put it, of what we are, the one thing that presents itself to 
me as the single greatest thing is that we should get together — get 
together. It is supreme, the magnificent effort which your Pacific 
mother has put forth. It is supreme, the splendid effort which 



BANQUET ADDBESSES 113 

our great Atlantic mother has put forth. We, who are some 
thousands of miles nearer to the scene of conflict, have passed 
through various phases, one of which I hope is exactly similar to 
that through which you have passed and from which you have 
come triumphant. 

But I do feel that such pride as we university and college 
people should have is an honest pride and a just pride when we 
think that the very cream of our university men are the men who 
have been put to the very front to meet the dreadful and terrible 
task which lies before them. About one and a-half per cent, all 
told, of adult men have hitherto enjoyed the benefits of a univer- 
sity training. Upon that paltry one and a-half per cent, more 
than eighty per cent of the great tasks of the country has de- 
volved. That is a record of which to be proud. Exactly in the 
same way that the vast machinery of government should be 
united, working smoothly, with an effectiveness which we had not 
expected of our democracy, but of which we are justly proud, 
has been largely due to university men. We dare not forget, 
because not only has it been done but much remains still to be 
done, and we know it will be done with the same effectiveness. 

A note has been struck today, sir, which makes every fiber of 
my being respond. It is the note of the visitors, the note of 
exchange, the note of general and broad sympathy among the 
universities. Let us organize it, sir, let us organize it ; let us have 
a great central board which will see to it that the thing which 
you do so generously, which is so admirably done in the Univer- 
sity of California, as evidenced by the great and kind hospitality 
extended to me and my kind from all the eastern universities, 
from the middle universities, should be organized in such a way 
that it will become permanent. We get old, we get set in our 
ways. At times the college professor appears to me to be the 
worst type of a fossil. Then all of a sudden he has a rejuvenation 
and rises to his task. There is nothing which will make him do 
it like that which has happened to me, to be sent from the eastern 
university up and down this coast to your marvelous institutions 
of learning, and to become, for the time being, the possessor of 
that California spirit which I am proud to share with you; the 
spirit of warm hospitality, the spirit of keen appreciation, the 
spirit of God-bless-you,-go-on-your-way-but-come-to-us-again-if- 



114 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTFNAEY 

you-can. That kind of temper is the temper that we, in our 
older East, need to get from yon in fullest measure, to quaff it out 
of a great bowl held mth both hands. 

There is a nursery tale about two boys who were mounted 
upon the same rocking horse, and after a little time one of them 
said, ' ' Say, Tommy, let 's one of us get off so there will be room 
for me." We have got too much of that. We want to have 
it dissipated. We need to have it understood that there is plenty 
of room in our broad domain, we Americans of every sort and 
every type, and every map — that there is plenty of room for both 
of us and for all of us. And I am eager, if I can give you any 
note tonight, to give you the thought that you should back up 
your President, and that the movement which is sure to be in- 
augurated within a short time shall have your hearty support, 
not only of receiving but of sending your professors to us. 

Yet that is not enough. We have scholarships that send men 
to Europe, we have scholarships that send them out on investi- 
gations, all splendid. What you say, sir, is so true, that after all 
the acid test of the university is the thing that is produced by 
the research of the scholars, whether students or professors. 
What we need is the type of scholarship and fellowship that will 
send Columbia students to California, and pay their expenses, 
and that will send California students to us and to Harvard and 
to Yale and to Princeton, for in a certain sense I feel it incumbent 
upon me to mention all of our great eastern universities with 
which I am more familiar, unfortunately, than I am of those of 
the Middle States. That is the thing which I want to commend 
to you. 

Then there is a certain something which I must say before I 
sit down (which will be very soon) and it is this : Every patriot 
here in this room is yearning, longing, eager to assist in the 
tremendous struggle in which we are engaged; and I regret to 
say that somehow, in reading the papers during the last six 
months, not only at home but here, I do not find a certain note 
which ought to ring, and ring, and ring until it is part of our 
very being. Have you stopped to think, ladies and gentlemen, 
of the mothers of France? Have you stopped to think of the 
mothers of Great Britain ? There is no moaning at the bar when 
their boys are sent forth into eternity. It is, "These I have: 



BANQUET AJDDBESSES 115 

these I have given. Have I more ? I lay it on the altar. And I 
do it with gladness and with cheerfulness." And I ask you 
women, in particular, if you find your men a little gloomy as 
they look over their paper to cheer them up. I do not ask you 
to be Spartan mothers and endure — that is not what you have 
to do — or Spartan sweethearts and endure, or Spartan sisters 
and endure. I ask you to go much farther, to be glad in every- 
thing that you give in this great crisis. 

I live a very considerable portion of the year, although I am 
a professor in Columbia, in the university town of Princeton, 
where I was a professor for twenty years. "When slavery was 
abolished many negroes came there to live. They took the names 
of their old masters, for the most part, the most distinguished 
names, almost, in the history of New Jersey being the names of 
our darkies. One of them, John Richmond, was accosted, as he 
was going from the engine house down a blind alley to vote, by 
one of our oldest and most distinguished citizens, Mr. Stockton — 
historic name. He said to him : 

' ' John, you have been voting ? ' ' 

"Yes, sah," 

"John, who did you vote for?" said Mr. Stockton. 

"Well," he said, "Mr. Stockton, it was this away. I was 
goin ' down toward the engine house, and the Democrats got hold 
o ' me, and they talked and they talked and they slipped me three 
dollars. Well, I took it, and I went a little farther and then the 
Republicans got hold o' me, and they talked to me and they 
talked and they talked and they slipped me two dollars. And, 
Mr. Stockton, you may as well know I jest nachally voted the 
Republican ticket, because, you see, they was the least corrupt." 

Unhappily, there is a moral in that. Unhappily, we cannot 
always choose the absolutely right or the absolutely good, and, 
on the other side, reject the absolutely wrong. We know, alas, 
those of us who have gone a certain distance upon the path of 
life, that the ethics of our life, like the ethics of every man, how- 
ever high his station may be, so frequently consists in choosing 
the lesser of two evils. Now, you may say to me, apropos of 
what I have been saying, "We will not do any of these things 
that you have been talking about, we will be placid, we will be 
calm, we will do the absolutely right thing." I don't know how 



116 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

many of you are descended from Puritans, many of you, I am 
sure — I am descended from something quite as bad, a Scotch 
Presbyterian — and that conscience of ours somehow or other 
prompts us in what I think at the present moment is the wrong 
direction; and what I am asking you to do is to be cheerful in 
this hour of need above everything else. It may be that that is 
the choice of the lesser of two evils. But at this moment our boys 
at the front — my wife there wears the service button, our boy is 
in the thick of it — it is not a case of freely granting them leave, 
of giving them our blessing, but it is the ease of letting them 
know at every moment of our lives and of their lives that there 
is a gladness and a joy and a cheerfulness behind them. We say 
we will do our duty : without that, our duty will be a sad, sour, 
and dreadful thing. 

In conclusion, I want to say, that, as I look about me here, it 
is not exactly the sort of graduate dinner to which I am accus- 
tomed. We haven't reached so far yet, quite, in our graduate 
dinners. But we are getting there very rapidly. We will have 
the girls with us soon ; whether they are young girls or middle 
aged girls or elderly girls they are going to be with us as you are 
here tonight. 



BANQUET ADDBESSES 117 



ADDRESS OF JAMES H. BREASTED, A.M., Ph.D., B.D. 
Professor of Egyptology and Oriental History, in the University of Chicago 

Mr. president, and, as my distinguished predecessor, seem- 
ingly with great satisfaction, uttered for the first time, I take it, 
as the spokesman of your recently created body of alumni — 
Fellow Alumni — a term which I am very proud to use : I count 
it a great privilege, even thus unexpectedly, without any oppor- 
tunity for preparation, to speak at least a word of appreciation. 
I have been carried away, as we visitors all have been, by this 
veritable flood tide of California enthusiastic hospitality. It makes 
a triple assault upon the visitor ; upon mind, heart, and digestion. 
The last two, in my case, have promptly surrendered, and I have 
lost them both, and I fear, before I have done, you may be 
inclined to think also that the first has likewise very largely 
surrendered. 

A note of deep seriousness has been struck here this evening. 
You may permit me, perhaps, to turn for a moment to the lighter 
side. Many seem to be the uses of the archaeologist. He is 
expected to dig up old things. Presumably that is one of the 
reasons why your chairman fancied that I could deliver an after 
dinner speech. 

I remember very well ten years ago, far up in the heart of 
Nubia, that magnificent temple that has yielded so much, and 
where we were indeed digging up old things, that in order to 
gain access to a great inscription, from which I hoped and, 
indeed, afterwards was able to recover a fascinating chapter from 
the Old World, I was deeply buried in a trench before the monu- 
ment, and in order to reach the enormous lines of the inscription, 
which were at the bottom of the trench, I was obliged fairly to 
stand on my head. Way down at the southern limit, I am glad 
to say it was the southern limit, for we soon escaped them, were 
a group of Cook's tourists, and as the bi-weekly steamer drew 
up at the dock, a very elegantly dressed English lady came for- 
ward, climbed the river bank, and presently espied a very gener- 



118 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

ous array of khaki trousers, and down below underneath an 
archaeologist at work, wrong end up. She stared for a moment, 
and superciliously adjusting her lorgnette, looked down and said, 
' ' Fawncy earning your living doing that. ' ' Had she but known 
what I was really doing I fancy she would have manifested an 
absorbing interset in my occupation on this particular occasion, 
for the monument on which I was engaged was nothing less than 
an account of a wedding in high life. There were forty lines, 
each eight feet long. Even our distinguished journalist from 
New York might have regarded a high-life wedding account 320 
feet long as fairly fulsome. 

Upon publishing a preliminary account of that wedding in- 
scription there reached me in the heart of the Soudan, a letter 
of which I would like to read you just a portion. It is headed 
with an eagle, and over it the cryptic words, ' The Ramsey Family 
Association," and the local officers of the local associations all 
over the United States are duly listed on either side of the head- 
ing, and then the letter goes on to say : ' ' My dear sir : I notice 
from press reports that you have been making investigations in 
Egypt and that you have unearthed an account of the marriage 
of Rameses the Second. As secretary of our association, I am 
very much interested in anything concerning Rameseys. I have 
found that on a list of ancient knights, a report from Scotland, 
one knight is named Ramesey" — spelled R-a-m-e-s-e-y. "The 
people of England know nothing of the origin of the name nor 
of the three places in England so named. The Scotch people are 
very tenacious of the name, preferring the spelling R-a-m-s-a-y, 
but they admit that the name R-a-m-s-e-y is altogether correct, 
and that some of their ancestors spelled it R-a-m-s-e-y. Now, my 
theory is that some of the descendents of Rameses went north and 
west as civilization worked its way eastward and crossed Rome, 
Austria, Germany, and finally to England, where the places there 
were named Ramsey, from some of their descendants. I would 
like to know if you, in your researches, have found out what 
became of the descendants of Rameses, and whither do you think 
they went. A man named Pharoah Ramsey lives in the State of 
Kentucky at the present time, which, to say the least, is a strange 
coincidence." 



BANQUET ADDRESSES 119f 

I repeat that many are the uses of the archaeologist. While 
we men who deal with this very remote oriental world of the near 
east sometimes find ourselves diverted in mid-career by com- 
munications like this — I have a full file of what I call my freak 
correspondence, of which this is a prize specimen — ^nevertheless, 
we are dealing there with an aspect of the life of men which has, 
after all, it seems to me, its immediate and more serious bearing 
upon our own attitude toward life at the present moment. With 
us who are endeavoring to recover the various chapters of the 
human career, and to discern emerging from the ages and eons 
of the Stone Age barbarism the expanding life of man, it is ours 
to discern that life, in its crossing of the Mediterranean and 
planting in the southeastern regions of Europe the very earliest 
germs of that civilization which, ultimately spreading over 
Europe, has crossed the western ocean and found a home on this 
western continent. And those of us who work in that way, realize, 
I think, and perhaps more fully than others who labor on the 
later phases of civilization, what it has cost; the ages of human 
endeavor, man confronting the forces of nature round about him, 
facing intelligently the forces of the material world, and making 
conquest of the highest, age by age. That is the panorama of 
the centuries which reveals itself to us, and we realize how many 
ages of human comfort it has cost to build up this structure 
which, transplanted to our fair land, has been so enlarged, 
developed, beautified, and diversified. 

And now, just as v\^e have stood, as we thought, in the dawn 
of a new morning, another race has re-proclaimed the law of the 
jungle. And it remains for us, us of a new continent, to keep 
our faces toward the morning, realizing what civilization has 
cost, and to plant ourselves in the way and save it, as it was 
saved over and over again by the men who had won it in the 
beginning. 

I like to think of the conquest of this continent, not alone as 
an exploitation of material resources, wondrous as that has been. 
But the men who planted the trails of this vast continent with 
rich and prosperous states were accompanied also by the gaunt 
and pious figures of those Pilgrim forefathers of ours, on whom, 
to be sure, our colleague. Professor Sloane, looks with some com- 



120 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

miseration, perhaps ; and the descendants of those same Pilgrims 
of New England as they have drifted westward across the con- 
tinent have drawn out of the resources of the wilderness the 
lessons of a higher and a more spiritual life, have planted it as 
they moved westward with colleges. In Ohio, Oberlin ; in Illinois, 
Knox; in Wisconsin, Beloit; and the one with which you are 
familiar in Southern California here, Ponoma ; while north of you 
are still others. And here in the vicinity of your own campus, 
the seed was planted out of which your own great and noble 
university has grown. That kind of thing never took place before 
in the history of man. Never was there spread out a continent 
of hills and valleys and primeval forests of which man was 
called upon to make conquest, where as he has made conquest of 
it he at the same time has taken care that the youth of the land 
should be educated and given the privilege of learning the 
highest ideals of human culture. Having achieved a past like 
that, I look forward to the future without dismay. The latest 
news in the newspapers may not be encouraging. But we of 
America should not falter. We shall go forward, and, if neces- 
sary, there will be five million men in Prance two years from now. 
I want to thank you men of the Pacific Coast for the privilege 
of coming out here and learning a new lesson in patriotism. I 
appreciate deeply the honors that have been conferred upon me, 
of which I had not the slightest intimation when I was bidden 
first to come here and began to speak upon the ancient civiliza- 
tions which I so much love. I appreciate all those things deeply. 
And as I go, I want to say that it is not merely with a feeling of 
gratitude, deep and pleasant gratitude, but with a feeling also of 
complete confidence in the men and women of this Pacific world, 
that they are building well and worthily, solidly, and in such a 
way that the future may be regarded by us all as safe, certain, 
and along the lines which you and the great President of your 
University may lay out for the communities along the Pacific 
Coast. 



BANQUET ADDBESSES 121 



ADDRESS OF GEORGE FILLMORE SWAIN, B.S., LL.D. 

Professor of Civil Engineering in the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology, Harvard University 

Mr. toastmaster, ladies and gentlemen, fellow alumni 
AND ALUMNAE: My name is not on the list of speakers for this 
evening, and it was only a few moments ago that I was asked 
to say a few words to you. So you may well believe, therefore, 
that my feelings approximate very closely to those of a minister 
one Sunday morning, who was accustomed to give two sermons 
each Sunday, one in the morning and one in the evening, and 
who, when he put his hand in his pocket for his sermon in the 
morning, found it was not there. He had left it at home. He 
was quite embarrassed, and he arose and said to his congregation : 
"My dear friends, I feel quite guilty and embarrassed, for I 
find that I have left my sermon at home. Therefore I shall only 
be able to speak the words which the Almighty puts into my 
mouth, but I hope to come this evening better prepared." 

I much fear that there is nothing I can say to you this even- 
ing that will not have a personal touch. My thoughts are all in 
that direction. I am in a peculiar position here today and, 
indeed, this week. I am a native Californian, born just across the 
way, and my early education was received but a few blocks from 
here in Oakland. I then went east, by force of circumstances, 
and there I have remained. I now find myself here once more, in 
my native state, my native city, receiving your wonderful hospi- 
tality and being honored by your great university in a manner 
which leaves me no way of expressing my appreciation. 

There are other reasons why my thoughts tonight are largely, 
if not entirely personal. "When I went east your President 
Wheeler prepared me for college in mathematics. You see what 
I owe to him. He got me into college. If it had not been for 
him I might not have been a college student even. In that ease 
I could not have graduated and, therefore, I might not have been 
here tonight. Then, in conferring upon me the degree with which 
I was honored today you see he is simply giving to me what really 



122 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

belongs to him. We all receive our stimulus from a few men 
and I should like to bear tribute to your President for what he 
did for me. He stimulated me as did another of your great 
Californians. It is very curious how things come around in this 
world, for after I entered college I was tutored in logic by your 
Professor Howison, and to him I owe a great deal, a debt that I 
realize more and more as I look back to that time. When I left 
California neither of these men were here. I go east, and receive 
my inspiration and stimulus from them, and I come out here and 
I receive from President Wheeler an honor ; but too late, unfor- 
tunately, to see my old Professor Howison. He still lives, how- 
ever, in the hearts of all those who have ever come under his 
influence. 

The great reward that a teacher receives in this world is to 
be made conscious that he has been successful in helping young- 
men make more of themselves than they otherwise perhaps could 
have made. So I am very glad to tell you here, alumni and 
alumnae of the University of California, what I personally owe^ 
and what I am sure thousands of other young men have owed 
to President Wheeler and to Professor Howison. 

I am impressed here tonight with the similarity of meetings 
of this kind in other universities. We are one body, the univer- 
sities of this country. We belong to one great guild. We are 
working for a common end and a common purpose. And I might 
easily imagine myself tonight at a meeting of Harvard alumni 
or Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni, except that we 
do not have the great advantage of so many of the fair sex. 
Perhaps we shall come to that in time. But we are one body, we 
are working together for a common end, I repeat. I see this flag, 
I see that 2200 of your California alumni are serving their 
country in this time of stress. It is just the same with us in the 
East, perhaps more so. The Engineering School of Harvard 
University has been converted entirely, or perhaps I should say 
the former Engineering School, into a school given up to govern- 
ment purposes for the education of radio men. The building in 
which my office is at the Institute of Technology is one-half given 
up to barracks and offices for army engineers and aviators ; and 
when I go into my office in the morning I am very apt to be 
stopped by a sentry, and I have to draw out my pocketbook and 



BANQUET ADDBESSES 12S 

show a pass to get into my own office. That is the way it is. 
Our campus looks just like this does here, marching men and 
the roll of guns, the roll-call, everywhere. The spirit of it is in 
the air. We college men, the college men of the country, have 
come to the front in this crisis in a manner of which I think we 
may all be proud. We have never failed the country, and we 
shall never fail the country. And as the years go by, in solving 
the great problems which we shall face after this war, which 
President Hutchins has so ably outlined, perhaps greater than 
any of the past, the country will be made, I am sure, to realize 
that the college men can be depended upon to use their influence 
and all their efforts, directly and indirectly, toward the correct 
solution of those problems ; so that people may realize that college 
education, higher education, does not mean simply the acquisition 
of knowledge, but that it means higher things, that it means 
morality, that it means the highest public service and sacrifice.. 



124 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENABY 



ADDRESS OF HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., Litt.D. 

gather Professor of History, University of California 

The toastmaster : I had a very direct question hurled at me 
by Professor Henry Morse Stephens. He said, without any 
warning, "Why am I asked to speak at an alumni banquet? I 
am not an alumnus. The alumni should do the talking." I 
pacified him by telling him that he had been drafted. That is a 
word to conjure with these days and it subdued even Professor 
Stephens. He will speak to you this evening as a friend if not 
as an alumnus. Professor Stephens. 

Professor Stephens : Your chairman has robbed me of my 
first sentence. I was going to tell you all about how I had not 
intended to talk as an alumnus, but how I had been drafted. 
Yet, although this is the first alumni banquet I have ever attended 
I am delighted to be here, because there are some things that I 
want to say. 

The first of those things is that I wish we had in the Univer- 
sity of California something like the great annual service that we 
have in my old University of Oxford, where we have each year 
what we call a commemoration of founders and benefactors. I 
have felt, superbly interesting as the services of today have been 
(for they were services), that one thing was lacking, the oppor- 
tunity to express the feelings of the University to many men who 
have served it long and faithfully without any conspicuous pre- 
tense to enroll themselves in any particular place of honor. When 
I think of the services to the University of men like Prank 
Bridges and men like James Sutton, men who do great work and 
without whom the University could not continue to exist, it seems 
to me that we here, as a body of alumni, ought to have some 
means of expressing our gratitude to them and men of that kind. 
To Colonel Edwards, a magnificent tribute was paid last night 
at the Harmon Gymnasium. The services of men of that kind, who 
have graduated from this University and have then continued to 
serve in it, are never, it seems to me, sufficiently recognized. 



BANQUET ADDBESSES 125 

A large part of our faculty comes from the Middle West, the 
East. Our speakers tonight, our delegates that we honor, come 
largely from a distance. I come from a greater distance than 
any of them. It is a far cry from the University of Oxford to 
the University of California. For very many years I cherished 
the thought of going back to Oxford. But when I was there in 
1910 and the opportunity was afforded me to go back to Oxford 
I found that I had become so Californianized that it was not pos- 
sible to go back there any more. A man who has once felt the 
charm of California, who has lived in the University of Cali- 
fornia, cannot be happy anywhere else. If we could keep here 
men like Sloane and Breasted and Hill for about a year they 
would never go back to Columbia or Harvard. You men and 
women who have graduated from this great university of ours 
cannot realize what it means to be outside of it, to the visitor. It 
means something that they have never felt before. I always 
think that it would be such a good thing if every person, not only 
from the University of California but every Californian, could 
be dropped into New York for three months in the winter. Then 
you would appreciate California properly. It is only those of us 
who come from a distance who know what it means. 

Now, I got to thinking about my special subject to speak 
about tonight, and I have thought of a good many things, a great 
many things. I consulted Frank Otis and one or two other people 
as to whether it would be appropriate for me to say something 
to you about the matter that lies close to the heart of all of us, 
morning, noon, and night ; to say something of the present war in 
Europe, as it has seemed to the University and the graduate eye. 
I happen to have the good fortune of having many good friends 
among the undergraduates, and they come and tell me things 
which I think they very often don 't tell their parents. They use 
me as a sort of father confessor, I am happy to say. These boys 
come to me, one after another, to ask what branch of the service 
they shall go into, what they shall do, and where they shall go, 
and my tables pile with letters from boys from all parts of the 
country, and from the allied countries abroad. One of them, 
knowing he might not tell where he was in his letter, drew me a 
little plan of the city, which I was thoroughly able to recognize, 
as the place where his battalion was quartered. 



126 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

So I think I can speak quite clearly about the way these young 
men feel. I have had the advantage of talking to innumerable 
alumni. Tonight I sat at table with one known to many of you, 
Sunny Jim Force, Major Force, of the United States National 
Army. On the other side was young P. T. McFarland, graduate 
of our University, who first took his Doctor's degree, and then 
promptly entered the service in the navy. I kept the width of 
the table betwen the naval man and the infantryman. But from 
all of these various sources I think in some degree I have been 
able to find out, and I should like to tell you about it, how the 
boys around the University really feel in regard to the importance 
of serving at the present time. Perhaps I can best illustrate it 
by saying that I was talking a short time ago to a group of 
juniors, men of the class of 1919, and this was their theme, every 
one of them : ' ' Do you think we can retain our membership in the 
class of 1919 f We are all going to France, of course, but won 't it 
be the greatest class that ever existed, a class that has gone 
through a war, a class that has been in France, not only hinting 
at it but actually being there? We shall have had the greatest 
experience, we shall have played the great game. But we want 
to remain as the class of 1919 of the University of California. ' ' 

That is the spirit of the boys. It is a wonderful spirit. The 
boys came to me to ask me whether they should join the National 
Guard at the time of the war with Mexico — I won't say the war, 
but the movement on the Mexican border. There were lots of 
boys who didn't feel they wanted to go into that, somehow; 
various causes disinclined them to believe in it. But there isn't 
a man in the entire University of California who in his heart and 
soul is not intending to go to France as soon as he possibly can. 

One day I happened near two boys in my classrom, one of 
them deaf in one ear and the other blind in one eye, and they 
were saying to each other, if they could only manage somehow or 
other to exchange, then one of them could go, and it would be all 
right. There is a desire to go, with an intensity that I have never 
known. 

I traveled through Germany and was in France as a boy at the 
time of the Franco-German war in 1870-71. I have seen a good 
deal of warriors who have been through different campaigns, but 
there never has been anything like the feeling there is today, and 



BANQUET ADDRESSES 127 

that feeling surely is because these boys know, though some of 
them dare not state it — they know that this war is not a war 
between nations, it is not a struggle for advantage of any kind 
whatever, it is a war of religion, it is a war of principle, it is a 
war of one civilization against another civilization. There has 
sprung up in the last one hundred years a civilization based on 
force, based on a government of a part of civilization which has 
for its doctrine that the state is male and the church is female, 
that the state should absorb all their energies and control all their 
lives. And over against that has grown up in other countries a 
belief that the true development of Christianity and humanity is 
toward a line of a free field for every one. On the one hand 
there has been fully developed the idea that inefficiency must be 
punished, that extreme efficiency, even to the extreme of brutality, 
must be followed. Over against this are the doctrines that have 
grown up so slowly as Christianity, that there is a place in the 
world for the afflicted and the unfortunate; they are not to be 
crushed out by an iron system that deals in efficiency only. 

Those two civilizations are face to face. They cannot exist 
together in the same world. Abraham Lincoln, as you know, 
said there could not exist side by side freedom and slavery. 
There cannot exist side by side a civilization of freedom and a 
civilization of autocratic development. Our boys know that. You 
men know that. You know perfectly well that this is a holy war. 
It is not a war of nation against nation. I get tired when I hear 
of going to war to help the French, or to help the English, or to 
help the Allies, or to war against the Germans or the Bulgarians, 
or against anybody. There is nothing of that kind. As I read the 
American boy 's soul, he is not going to fight Germans, he is going 
to fight the system that has grown up which calls brutality 
efficiency. 

Over and against that system, then, is that civilization which 
we call democracy. I have lived in this country for twenty-four 
years. For the first sixteen of those years I had every intention 
of going back to Oxford as soon as I possibly could, just as if you 
go East you live in the intention of coming back to California just 
as soon as you possibly can. After I came back last from Oxford, 
and thought it all over, and that I was going to spend the rest 
of my life here, I thought I should at least be a citizen of the 



128 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

United States. But I could not, after the war broke out. I was 
told to be a neutral, and I was a resident alien. It is a hateful 
thing to be a resident alien. It closes your mouth. You can't 
say anything. Oh, but I wanted desperately to say things, par- 
ticularly after the sinking of the "Lusitania." I could not see 
or think neutrality. I am not built neutral — I must fall one side 
or the other, and I felt villainously unneutral. But I had to 
keep quiet. I might not say a word. That would be very wrong 
as a resident alien. A resident alien who had gone on twenty- 
four years as a resident alien should not say anything. I wanted 
to talk, but I was not allowed to talk. My duty as a resident 
alien in a neutral country, to be as silent as I could, was very, 
very hard. 

It is very, very hard to renounce your own fatherland and 
become a citizen of another land. But the moment I read Presi- 
dent Wilson 's war message last April, I turned over in my bed 
and resolved that I would go down to Oakland as quick as pos- 
sible and be naturalized. And in November last, in this very city 
of Oakland, I was admitted to citizenship in the United States. 
And I am proud of it, because I have become a citizen of the 
United States in the time when the United States is taking its 
big part in the world. I gave a course of lectures, as some of 
you may remember, on general history, commonly known as 1a 
and 1b, on the topic of the ' ' United States as a World Power. ' ' 
The United States is a world power, and has taken the responsi- 
bility of being a world power, as President Hutchins said this 
morning. And it can only do its part as a world power by think- 
ing out what the future of the world must and shall be. 

And I want to say to you that the good will triumph, the 
right will triumph. It is hard sometimes to feel it these days, 
when one sees these desperate, terrible headlines, scare headlines, 
I trust they are, in the newspapers. But for all that, it will merely 
stiffen the souls of the American people. I have not lived for 
twenty-four or five years among them without knowing what that 
temper is. I have not been brought into touch for twenty-five 
years with students without knowing what Americanism will do 
when it sets itself definitely to a task, believing it to be right. 

It is all very well to make fun of the so-called materialism of 
America. The United States is not a bit materialistic. It is 



BANQUBT ADDRESSES 129 

idealistic to an extreme. It believes in its ideals. It fought for 
them in the Civil War for four long years, the men of the South 
believing in their States Rights, the men of the North believing 
that slavery must end. They fought it out. This war is a much 
worse war. It is a war, as I have said, of religion, that is, the 
religion of democracy, which is the religion of the United States ; 
the religion which believes in the right of every man, poor, sick, 
or afflicted. That is the real democracy of the United States. I 
do not care so much about its political democracy — what I love 
is its great social democracy, and no where can you see that illus- 
trated as you can in the American university. 

The greatest handicap that a man can have is to possess a 
little money. It is the boy who works his way through college 
who is the ideal college student, and you all know it. You all 
know how you honored the man who graduated with you after 
making his way through with pain and toil. If you only knew 
the delight with which I received some time ago the small present 
in money to be used in helping that type of hard-working student 
making his way through college, who is ashamed to go to a loan 
office, who is afraid to ask, and who may have to go home. Those 
are the men who make the finest graduates of the University of 
California. For it is not only brains we try to cultivate, but to 
make a definite, genuine character, so as to make a man able to 
find his way through this world of ours. 

There is one other thing I want to say, a confession I want 
to make. I was, I suppose, sufficiently fair in my attitude in 
regard to one great question in the world, because I was asked 
to speak on behalf of woman suffrage and against it. I accepted 
neither invitation, for obvious reasons. But what I do think is 
going to happen in this old world of ours, when it is all broken 
up, when its civilization has been broken up and a new heaven 
and a new earth come into existence, is that we are going to find 
an entirely changed world. When this war comes to an end the 
world is going to be broken all to pieces, the old ideas of prop- 
erty, the old ideas of marriage, the old ideas of classification of 
any kind — they are all going to change. You men and the 
younger men among us (I shall not live to see it) will build up 
a new civilization, and in that civilization, your great, big help 
lies in the fact that you have the women with you. As I get my 



130 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA 8EMICENTENAEY 

letters from England I discover the wonderful work the English 
women are doing. As I get my letters from France I find out 
something about those wonderful French women, who have sacri- 
ficed their husbands, their sweethearts, and their sons. It is 
because the women are with us here that we shall be able to 
overcome a civilization which declares that the state is masculine, 
and which declares that women should be entirely relegated to 
raising children. The women of this world are fully taking their 
part. They make the big sacrifices. They are equal with the 
men in every respect. They have as much right to vote and will 
use their vote as rightfully as the men. They have as much 
right to take part in decisions as to whether a nation shall go to 
war or not, as have we. My girls in the University of California 
are just as capable as the boys. The women are behind the men 
in everything that this war signifies ; and it is because they have 
worked away from the idea of the state being purely masculine, 
because men and women alike in this country are able to consider 
things, that I rejoice that mine eyes have been cleansed of the 
blindness which made me ever ready to consider, as an old Vic- 
torian Englishmen would consider, the position of women as 
being relegated away from the great things of life. Woman is 
showing herself worthy of the great things of the world. And 
the new civilization that will be built up, when the time comes, 
will be one in which the women will take quite as big a part, or 
bigger, than the men. 

I have sometimes felt that it is my duty to make such con- 
fession as I have made so that I could be easy of conscience. I 
have made it, and I now feel easier in mind. And I say to you 
that you may talk to the women in the University as well as to 
the men, and you will find that their new responsibilities are 
making far grander creatures of them. You will note, of the 
women, that they are far nobler women than they would be shut 
away in the kitchen and the nursery of the old time civilization. 

There are many other things that I should like to say to you. 
To a body of alumni of the University like this, I feel as though 
I should like to say many, many things — words, above all, of 
encouragement, words to make you realize how a man like myself 
feels, that this union of heart of French and English and Italian, 
and, above all, of Amercian, is bound to make the new world that 



BANQUET ADDRESSES 131 

is to come a better world. It may be harder for a time, but it is 
going to be better in the long run. We who are here in this room 
are going to suffer deeply and are going to rejoice greatly. And 
in the forefront of civilization is this land of the United States, 
of which I am so proud now to be a citizen. Because it is going 
to play, it is playing, a great game. Don't be deceived if you 
find your brothers and your sons speaking lightly of their obliga- 
tions. It is because they feel deeply. The ordinary boy, if you 
ask him why he is interested, will give you any kind of an excuse 
that comes to his mind. He will say he is going because some- 
body else is going, or because somebody else didn 't go, or perhaps 
he thought it would be fine to go, or he would like to go and talk 
French, or like to go across the Atlantic at Uncle Sam 's expense. 
I have heard that very remark made. It is all camouflage. He is 
going because he knows and feels that he is an American, and it 
is his place to see that civilization does not vanish from the earth. 

The University of California has taken its part and is doing 
its best to train and encourage its young men and young women 
that they may be among the leaders in this great national move- 
ment to save civilization from the barbarian. I say ''the bar- 
barian" — yes. "Why? Because of his education in barbarism, 
because of his training school ; because he has been trained up to 
believe he is so much the best person in the world that it is his 
duty to spread that idea abroad by force among other people. 
That is wherein there has grown up the arrogance which the 
world now sees displayed. Again and again attempts have been 
made to accomplish it, through one civilization or another — 
through Louis XIV in France, the Napoleonic Empire — which 
very nearly accomplished it. But the law of right, of freedom, 
of justice, has triumphed, and such combinations have gone down 
before and they will and must go down again. And it is your 
part, the part of every one of you, men and women alike, to be 
behind this great force of the United States, which has taken so 
long to get itself out of the neutral attitude, which has taken so 
long to realize the intensity of the duty laid upon it, but which 
now, having realized it, will bring about a triumphant conclusion. 

And when the close comes, it will be for the United States of 
America to lead the world into the idea of democracy, that ideal 
which must crush and shall crush, in spite of whatever dis- 



132 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

appointments there may come first — must and shall crush the idea 
of force, the idea that one person or one group of people shall 
rule another person or another group of people. Because the 
eternal meaning of American democracy is, in the broadest sense, 
liberty, equality, fraternity; the right of every man to a chance 
and opportunity to make the best of himself. America means 
that, and the rest of the world will believe it in time. 

The toastmaster : Will you now all rise and join in singing 
"All Hail." and then, with "The Star Spangled Banner," we 
will close. (The University Hymn and the National Anthem 
were sung standing.) 



SPECIAL LECTURES 



SPECIAL LECTURES 135 



THE HITCHCOCK LECTURES OF THE UNIVERSITY OE 
CALIFORNIA, 1918 

George Fillmore Swain, B.S., LL.D. 

Gordon McKay Professor of Civil Engineering in the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology, Harvard University 

[First Lecture] 

THE FIRST QUEBEC BRIDGE AND ITS FAILURE 

This lecture dealt with the subject of the first bridge erected 
across the St. Lawrence River just above Quebec, which failed 
August 29, 1907. It was illustrated by many lantern slides, 
which traced the history of the structure, explained the type 
adopted and its relations with other types of long span bridges, 
discussed the methods of erection of bridges, showed the details 
of the structure, and finally described its failure and the reasons 
for this. 

This bridge as planned was to have a single span of 1800 feet, 
the longest span in the world. The main structure was a canti- 
lever bridge, of three spans, located about seven miles above the 
City of Quebec. The largest span is ninety feet longer than the 
two spans of the Forth Bridge, which was completed in 1889. 

The piers of the Quebec Bridge had been completed and the 
superstructure of the southerly half was being erected by first 
erecting the southerly shore arm on scaffolding, and then building 
out the long span piece by piece by means of travellers. The 
southerly cantilever arm had been completed and the suspended 
span in the center of the structure, which is supported at each 
end upon two cantilever arms, was being built from the south- 
erly end. The heavy traveller at the end of the projecting arm, 
which had been used in building the southerly cantilever arm, 
had been removed, and the central supported span was being 
built with a lighter traveller. A few days before the accident 
one of the inspectors discovered that one of the lower chord 
members of the southerly anchor arm near the river pier had 
buckled or bent out of line about two inches. A deflection at 
this place had been noticed the previous week, but at that time 
it was only three-quarters of an inch. 



136 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

While some of the employees appear to have felt uneasy with 
regard to this buckling, it was apparently considered by those in 
charge to be insignificant and not a cause for anxiety. On 
August 28th a conference of the chief engineers and others in 
authority was held, and it was decided to place the situation 
before the consulting engineer in New York. A messenger went 
to New York for this purpose, and the consulting engineer, after 
conference, telegraphed Phoenixville, where the bridge was being 
fabricated, and sent his representative there for consultation 
with the officers of the bridge company. By the time he arrived 
at Phoenixville the bridge had collapsed. Eighty-five men went 
down with the bridge, and of these only eleven were saved. 

No such mass of steel work had ever collapsed in the history 
of bridge building. Some 17,000 tons of steel formed one tangled 
mass of debris, extending from the anchor pier over the central 
pier down into the main current of the river. 

A study of engineering failures is more enlightening than a 
study of engineering successes. The lecture discussed the causes 
of the disaster, and drew the lessons which it taught. 

The material and workmanship of the bridge was considered 
to have been excellent. The disaster was not attributed to any 
flaw in material or defect in manufacture. It was due to the 
failure of the compression member and the buckling which had 
been noticed. This compression member had been designed 
without taking due account of the actual weight of the structure, 
the stresses in it were allowed to be too high, and the design was 
extremely faulty. The lattice bars connecting the parts of the 
member were much smaller in strength, in proportion to the size 
of the piece, than those used in ordinary design. These lattice 
bars had hitherto been designed in a purely empirical manner, 
although it is possible to apply to them some principles of mechan- 
ics. The lecturer, after the failure of the bridge and after obtain- 
ing details of the structure, had computed the strength of these 
columns and had found that failure should have taken place 
almost precisely when it did. 

Facts and figures were given with reference to the details and 
the causes of the failure, which it is not necessary to discuss 
further in this abstract. 



SPECIAL LECTURES 137 



[Second Lecture] 
THE SECOND QUEBEC BRIDGE 

A strange fatality seems to have pursued this structure. 
After the failure of the first bridge, plans were made for a new 
one at the same place and with the same span, although the 
width between trusses was greater. The design of the new struc- 
ture was radically different from that of the old one, and the 
differences between the two were explained and illustrated by 
lantern slides. 

The new bridge, like the old, was a cantilever bridge of three 
spans. The central supported span, which rests on the end of 
the cantilever arms, which in the old bridge was being built piece 
by piece from the cantilever arm, was in the new bridge designed 
to be built complete on the shore of the river. When completely 
erected, scows were to be run beneath it and the load transferred 
to these scows, which were then to be towed up the river until 
this supported span was in position between the two ends of the 
cantilever arms, which had previously been completely erected, 
and the supported span was then to be raised by hydraulic 
machinery into its permanent position. 

Great care had been taken in the design of the new structure, 
and the two cantilevers had been successfully erected without 
serious accident. The plans for the supported span in the center 
and for raising it into place had also been carefully studied, and 
were thought to be beyond suspicion. "When the span was being 
raised, however, after it had been raised a few feet and the scows 
had been taken away, there was a sudden failure at the southeast 
corner support, and the entire supported span dropped into the 
river. 

The lecture explained by means of numerous lantern slides the 
construction of the bridge, the methods of erection, and the causes 
for the failure. The cause is considered by some to have been a 
flaw in a steel casting, but it is more probable that the stress in 
the casting was excessive. Nevertheless, the other three castings 
held, and it is possible that there may have been a flaw in the 



138 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

one that failed. The design of these castings, however, was shovm 
to be open to criticism, and the peculiar point was illustrated that 
while more material was put into them than was necessary the 
result was a decrease in strength. 

Following this failure a new central supported span was built, 
and in the following year it was successfully erected, so that the 
structure is now complete. In the erection of the final structure 
the methods which were considered open to criticism in the pre- 
vious structure were changed. 

[Third Lecture] 

RAPID TRANSIT IN CITIES AND THE MEANS OF 

OBTAINING IT 

This lecture dealt with the subject of the growth of urban 
population, the transportation problems to which this growth 
had given rise, and the methods of meeting these problems. The 
lecture was illustrated by a large number of lantern slides show- 
ing subways and elevated structures in various American and 
foreign cities. 

The two main methods of providing rapid transit in cities are 
by means of subways and elevated lines. The first subway in the 
United States was built in Boston, and the lecturer had been 
connected as a member of the Boston Transit Commission with 
the construction of all the Boston subways for the previous 
twenty-five years. The relative advantages and disadvantages, 
of subways and elevated lines were discussed, the relative costs 
compared, and the methods of construction described. 



[Fourth Lecture] 

THE PRESENT SITUATION WITH REGARD TO THE 

DEVELOMENT OF WATER POWER AND FEDERAL 

LEGISLATION ON THE SUBJECT 

There are few points of more practical interest to the people 
of this country than the development of water power. In this 
subject the people of the Pacific Coast should be particularly 
interested, inasmuch as they are comparatively remote from 



SPECIAL LECTURES 139 

deposits of coal, although, of course, they have large supplies of 
that other fuel, which has taken so large a place in industry in 
recent years. 

Power is one of the great necessities of modern civilization. 
Indeed it may fairly be said that this modern age may be charac- 
terized more accurately than in any other way as an age of the 
development and use of power. When we remember that it is 
only one hundred and fifty years or less since the invention of 
the steam engine, that the locomotive is not yet one hundred 
years old, that the telephone, electric light, all forms of electric 
energy, and practically all of our modern machinery have been 
developed within one hundred and fifty years, prior to which 
time almost all manufacturing was done by hand, is it not clear 
that this is an age primarily of power and machinery? 

The sources of power are two, viz. : the combustion of fuel, 
and the harnessing of the natural power developed by falling 
water. These two sources are fundamentally different in their 
economic significance. Every pound of fuel that is burned is 
permanently lost to mankind and can never be recovered. Con- 
servation of fuel means economy and restriction in its use. Seeing 
that the end of our fuel supplies must come at some time, perhaps 
in the not very distant future, it is essential that the greatest 
possible economy should be exercised in its use. The power of 
falling water, on the other hand, is generated constantly by our 
rivers as they flow from their sources to the sea, and only needs 
to be harnessed in order to be utilized. Every pound of falling 
water not harnessed or used is lost forever and can never be 
recovered, although providentially the power goes on perpetually 
from year to year, renewing itself constantly. 

Conservation of fuel, therefore, means the greatest possible 
restriction in its use : conservation of water power means the 
greatest possible extension of its use. Every horse power devel- 
oped by water not only provides that power for use, but elim- 
inates development of power by means of combustion and per- 
manent loss of fuel. Conservation of water power is therefore 
a double conservation; it saves not only the power itself, which 
otherwise runs to waste, but it prevents or replaces the develop- 
ment of power by the use of something which once used can never 
be replaced. 



140 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

There is a third element involved, which makes the use of 
water power a triple conservation. Much has been said in recent 
years with reference to the desirability of improving our means 
of inland navigation by making our rivers navigable. In general 
this can only be done by means of locks, dams, and canals, by 
which a river is converted into a series of pools, or reaches, in 
which the velocity and depth are sufficient for navigation. Most 
projects for inland navigation are, in the opinion of the speaker, 
uneconomical and undesirable. Transportation by river and 
canal has been outgrown and superseded by transportation by 
rail, except in certain special localities, as, for instance, on the 
G-reat Lakes and wherever long distances can be traversed by 
water by means of large vessels. If anyone doubts this he has 
only to read Professor Moulton's interesting book entitled 
"Waterways vs. Eailways," or Mr. John Howe Peyton's book 
on railroad transportation in order to be convinced. Nevertheless, 
much is said about inland navigation, and in some cases and for 
small craft it is a desirable means of transportation. The point 
now to be observed is that the development of water power by 
the building of a dam is a large step in making a river navigable. 
The dam should, of course, be located not solely with reference 
to the requirements of water power but also with reference to 
the requirements of navigation. If so located, a water power 
development is a navigation improvement. Conservation of water 
power, therefore, not only develops power and prevents it going 
to waste, but also conserves fuel and navigation, and is, therefore, 
a triple conservation. At the present moment with the enormous 
demand for fuel, its price is very high, and the supply is in- 
sufficient for daily requirements. In the East there has been a 
coal famine this winter, the seriousness of which is propably not 
appreciated by those who live in the warm climate of California. 
Many people have been unable to get coal enough to keep them- 
selves decently or comfortably warm through a winter of un- 
exampled severity. The coal supply has been doled out in baskets- 
ful or bagsful under the direction of public committees, and our 
coal yards have every day been crowded with anxious people 
trying to get a few pounds to keep themselves warm. An ex- 
mayor of the city in which I live, finding himself out of coal and 
trying to get some was told by his dealer that the best he could 



SPECIAL LECTUBE8 141 

do was to let him have one ton if he would send and get it. 
Some people have had to close up their houses and live in hotels. 
Factories have been obliged to restrict output at the very time 
when it should have been increased to its maximum. Even in 
Philadelphia, close to the coal deposits of Pennsylvania, there 
has been much suffering and distress. 

The situation indicates forcibly the need, in the interests of 
the public and of the nation, of the greatest possible or practic- 
able development of water power, for water power can be used 
not only for power but for heat and light. Moreover, the intro- 
duction of electrical transmission of power has made it possible 
to develop water power in inaccessible regions, where such power 
exists, and to transmit it for use up to a distance of over two 
hundred miles with very little loss in transmission. Previous to 
the development of electrical transmission water power was under 
the great handicap that it could only be used at or near the point 
of development which is frequently in remote, mountainous, or 
otherwise inaccessible regions. Electrical transmission has, there- 
fore, revolutionized the status of water power and enormously 
increased its importance. With the development of electrical 
transmission has also come the increasing use of electricity as a 
means of utilizing power. Electric light has become the almost 
universal illuminant and electric motors are universally used to 
drive our street cars and largely used to drive machinery in mills. 
One of the great developments in the future will be its increased 
use in operating our railroads by means of electric locomotives 
instead of steam locomotives. Electric power is also used in 
many commercial processes, such as the manufacture of nitrogen- 
ous products for explosives and fertilizers, and in other processes 
requiring the production of a high temperature. 

In view of all the foregoing, it seems passing strange that 
water power has not been utilized to a greater extent. It would 
seem self-evident that the interests of the public would require 
its greatest possible economic development. Notwithstanding this 
its development has lagged behind that of steam. The last census 
of the United States in 1909 showed the total owned steam and 
gas power in use in forty-three leading industries to be 14,950,525 
horse power, and the total water power in use 1,822,888 horse 



142 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

power. Mr. Leighton, formerly Hydrographer of the United 
States Geological Survey, states that the developed water power, 
according to the census made in 1908 is 5,356,680 horse power. 
Mr. Leighton estimates that the undeveloped water power 
amounts to 37,000,000 horse power for twenty-four hours a day 
and 365 days in the year, of which one-third is in the northern 
Pacific region. Another government estimate is 28,000,000 horse 
power. But the greater part of the undeveloped power is at sites 
where at the present time there is no market. Mr. Leighton 
further states that in his opinion "The available water power 
sites in the country are all developed." It should be remarked, 
however, that the electrification of our railroads would make 
available a great many sites where otherwise there would be no 
market. Moreover, many sites now developed might have the 
power much increased if provision were made for proper storage 
which would supply water during dry seasons. The increase in 
power available by this means is very great, the absolute maxi- 
mum power possible by development in this country amounting 
in Mr. Leighton 's opinion, to "a conservative total of at least 
200,000,000 horse power." 

There is no question in the minds of those who have given 
this problem careful consideration that there is in this country 
an immense supply of water power possible of commercial de- 
velopment if a market could be established, and that the electri- 
fication of railways and the development of electro-chemical 
industries may offer a market for much of this power, A large 
part of the power within range of commercial development is in 
the region of the Columbia River and the northwestern Pacific 
slope. It is stated by good authority that "The largest amount 
of water power in any one state is contained in the state of 
Washington, which has nearly 10,000,000 water horse power, of 
which less than three per cent has been developed. In "Washing- 
ton coal is mined and steam power plants are operated within 
the range of the sound of descending waters, and trainloads of 
coal are imported each day from British Columbia." The same 
authority gives a list of actual projects for the development of 
water power in navigable streams which have been held back 
from development, amounting to 2,122,000 horse power. At all 
events a very great amount of power is possible of development 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 143 

as an engineering proposition, and in view of the fuel shortage 
its development and use should be carefully studied and encour- 
aged in every reasonable way. 

This subject has within the last three months been taken up 
by the Chamber of Commerce of the United States through a 
committee appointed for the purpose, and a referendum has been 
issued to constituent members throughout the country briefly 
discussing the subject and asking for a vote on certain funda- 
mental principles involved. 

In a recent consular report on the chemical industries of 

Norway the following statement is made : 

In surveying the chemical industries of Norway there are several 
features worthy of careful study by the American economist. First 
and foremost is the systematic and exhaustive manner in which the 
abundant water power of the country is now being regulated, 
stored up, and pressed into the service of the steadily increasing 
group of the electro-chemical industries. The best talent of the 
nation is enlisted in this cause and the way is rapidly being opened 
for Norway to assume an industrial position commensurate with 
its size and admirable facilities for maritime transportation. 

Why should not the United States devote equal attention to 
the development of its great resources ? 

From the above figures and other available statements and 
estimates it seems probable that there is today in use between 
four and five times as much steam power as water power, and 
that there is still undeveloped water power which could be 
practically developed amounting to much more than all of the 
steam power now in use. 

The development of water power besides saving fuel and 
affording a means of improving navigation, would bring other 
important advantages. It would release for other service the 
labor of millions of men employed in mining, transportation, 
and distribution; it would release hundreds of thousands of 
freight cars now used in transporting coal, as well as thousands 
of locomotives; it would save much damage and inconvenience 
due to smoke and soot, and thereby tend to improve human health 
and cleanliness. 

Every horse power than can be developed by water and used 
to replace steam power saves in the neighborhood of $15 worth 
of coal per annum. If this saving is capitalized at ten per cent 
it justifies an investment of say $150 a horse power in a water 



144 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICET^TENAEY 

power plant in excess of a steam plant. If 10,000,000 horse power 
could be developed by water this justifies an investment of 
$1,500,000,000. There seems little doubt that at least 5,000,000 
horse poAver could today be developed by water if encouragement 
were offered. This would mean an annual saving of, say, 
$75,000,000 in cost of coal alone. 

Mr. Hugh L. Cooper estimates that the utilization of 35,000,000 
horse power by water power would save, as compared with steam 
power, the sum of $1,241,600,000 per annum, besides conserving 
280,000,000 tons of coal and transferring to other needs the 
service of 600,000 railway cars, 20,000 locomotives, and 740,000 
laborers. 

Why then has water power not been more developed ? There 
are two reasons; first, the high cost of development of water 
power and its inferiority to steam in most respects; second, 
governmental restriction and discouragement. Let us consider 
these two in some detail. 

1. High Cost of Development of Water Power mid Its 
Inferiority to Steam in Most Respects 

One of the fundamental mistakes in the popular conception 
of water power is that it is cheap. The power itself is observed 
running to waste and it is inferred that as the power is there and 
does not require to be developed but only to be harnessed, it can 
be utilized at small expense. Such a view is incorrect. 

No power plant would be built, whether for steam or water, 
except in the expectation that it would be profitable for its 
owners, that is to say, that the gross return would be sufficient 
to cover all charges and leave a net return of an amount sufficient 
to be attractive. 

With reference to the cost of power the charges to be deducted 
from gross earnings are five, viz. : fuel, other operating expenses, 
taxes, depreciation, and fixed charges. A water power plant has 
the advantage that there will be no charge for fuel, and that 
other operating expenses will be small. The taxes and depreciation 
will be perhaps the same in either case, though the depreciation 
should be smaller, in general, for a water power plant. The fixed 
charges, however, will be very much greater for the water power 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 145 

plant. It is not generally realized that the initial cost of a water 
power plant will generally be from two to five times as much 
per horse power as for a steam plant, and, furthermore, that the 
initial development will have to provide for a larger total horse 
power. This arises from the fact that the construction necessary 
for a water power plant frequently, or generally, involves a dam, 
which may be of great size, and a very large area of land which 
must be flooded, and riparian rights acquired, together with 
canals, pen stocks, flumes, or conduits, and sometimes of great 
length, as well as transmission lines many miles in length, all 
of which is in addition to the power house itself with its 
necessary machinery. A steam plant is simple, involving simply 
the buildings and land for them, with the necessary machinery. 
The risk to the investor on account of the greater initial cost and 
higher fixed charges is, therefore, much greater for the water 
power plant than for the steam plant. Moreover, in case of 
failure there is a greater salvage in the steam plant. The land 
and buildings may be abandoned and used for other purposes, 
for they are generally located near the point of utilization or 
in a city, whereas a water power plant, like a railroad, can only 
be used for the purpose for which it was designed and cannot 
be abandoned and given up to some other use. The investor in 
a water power plant must, therefore, be prepared to face fixed 
charges of from two to five times that of a steam plant per horse 
power; and this of itself would be sufficient to deter investors 
from entering this field unless favorable conditions should exist 
both as to development and utilization and freedom from undue 
interference by public authorities. Furthermore, as already 
stated, the initial development in a water power plant must be 
greater relatively than in a steam plant. Most undertakings 
grow from small beginnings. If steam power is used, a small 
power plant may be built first, with one boiler and one engine. 
If the undertaking is successful and the demand for power grows, 
it is easy to add more units. In a water power plant, on the 
other hand, the dam, reservoirs, tunnels and other conduits, must 
be planned for a greater capacity than will be available at the 
beginning, for it may be difficult, if not impossible, to increase 
the capacity. The turbine wheels, of course, may be increased 



146 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

in number as the demand for power increases, but the other 
elements, except the transmission line, are not so easily increased. 
This element then also increases the initial investment and the 
risk to the investor. There is still another advantage in a steam 
plant, arising from the relatively greater possibility of improve- 
ment in the efficiency of steam machinery. A water wheel will 
utilize eighty or more per cent of the theoretical energy of the 
falling water, and the loss in electrical transmission will be small. 
There is, therefore, only a possibility of a slight increase in 
efficiency due to improvements in the art, probably not over five 
to ten per cent. On the other hand, in a steam plant the best 
reciprocating engines or steam turbines develop but little more 
than fifteen per cent of the theoretical energy of the coal and 
the best gas engines something over twenty per cent. It is evi- 
dent that the margin for possible increase in efficiency is very 
great. As a matter of fact, notwithstanding the increase in the 
cost of fuel, both the initial cost and the operating cost of steam 
plants has decreased considerably within recent years. Not many 
years ago a steam plant was commonly estimated to cost in the 
neighborhood of $100 per horse power, while recently (before the 
war, of course) large plants have been built at an initial cost of 
$40 or $50 per horse power, and these plants are said to have 
generated power for about three and a-third mills per kilowatt 
hour exclusive of interest and depreciation, which means for con- 
stant power twenty-four hours a day and 365 days in the year 
about $22 per horse power. If to this we add twelve per cent, on 
$40, for interest and depreciation on the initial cost, we arrive at 
a total cost under $27 per horse power per annum under favorable 
conditions, but varying, of course, very greatly, depending upon 
the manner in which the power is used, whether constantly or 
only during the day, the cost of fuel and labor, whether steam 
is needed and used for other purposes, as for heating, processes 
of manufacturing, etc. 

Moreover, steam power is constant from day to day through- 
out the year, while water power fluctuates, sometimes very 
greatly. At periods of low water there may be very little power, 
while at other times there may be a disastrous flood. The works 
are liable to damage, and if the power to be developed is to be 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 147 

greater than the absolute minimum flow of the stream it must be 
by storage, which can only be procured by means of reservoirs, 
involving the taking and flooding of large areas. 

Water power can be produced aside from fixed charges at a 
lower cost than steam power, if the conditions are favorable, 
owing to the absence of cost for fuel and the lower cost for labor ; 
but the fixed charges on the much larger investment often suffices 
to bring the total cost above that for steam power. 

Summing up, the large initial cost of water power develop- 
ments and the greater risk to the investor, together with the 
greater proportional development required at the beginning, is 
the main deterrent under this first heading to water power de- 
velopment. Once safely financed and in operation, with a good 
market, and fair treatment, water power developments are very 
attractive on account of the greater convenience, the small operat- 
ing expense, the small amount of labor employed, and the conse- 
quent absence of labor troubles, the independence of fuel supply, 
the smaller depreciation (in general), and the comparatively 
small amount of working capital needed. These advantages, 
however, may be more than offset if burdensome regulations and 
restrictions are likely to be imposed by public authority. 

It is a common impression that water powers are very profit- 
able undertakings, which are being sought by capital as a means 
of securing large returns on a small investment. Such is not the 
case. It has been pointed out that the investment is large and 
that in many respects steam power offers greater possibilities 
for profit than water power. If water power is to be developed, 
the conditions must be made favorable, and inducements must 
be offered to investors, including reasonable assurance of fair 
treatment from the public authorities. Present demand for the 
development of water power — and there is a large demand in 
many localities — generally comes not from capitalists who are 
seeking for profitable investment, but more often from communi- 
ties and industries which, on account of the high price and 
scarcity of fuel, are desirous in their own interest of inducing 
capital to make such developments; just as the demand for the 
building of railroads in the early days arose quite as much, if 
not more, from the desire of communities and states to secure 



148 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

transportation facilities in order to develop the public resources 
as it did from investors who saw the possibilities of large returns. 

The collateral advantages resulting from the development of 
water power, viz., the saving in fuel, in labor, in transportation, 
the absence of smoke and soot, are reaped not by the owners of 
the water power but by the community as a whole. If the total 
water power in the country now commercially capable of develop- 
ment could be brought into use, there is no question that the total 
direct and indirect saving to the public in the conservation of 
fuel and the release of labor and railroad equipment, as well as 
in other ways, would run into hundreds of millions of dollars 
annually, perhaps billions of dollars. 

The above considerations show the importance of approaching 
the subject with an attitude of mind which recognizes that the 
development of water power is of benefit mainly to the com- 
munity as a whole, and that in order to secure such benefits 
water power developments must be made attractive to capital, 
rather than with the attitude of mind which assumes that such 
enterprises should be surrounded with as many restrictions as 
possible. Particularly is this the case at this moment in this 
country. Capital will have abundant opportunities after this 
war, both here and abroad. States, conununities, and individ- 
uals will be clamoring for it, and it will be comparatively scarce, 
owing to the great destruction of wealth which has taken place. 
There will also be a scarcity of labor unless the labor supply of 
Oriental countries, which have not felt the devastation of war, 
can be utilized, which seems to many desirable though it may not 
appeal to some of you on the Pacific Coast. 

This leads us to consider the second reason why water power 
has not been more extensively developed, viz., 

2. Governmental Restriction. 

It is self-evident that large water powers will generally exist 
on large streams on which navigation is possible and which come 
within the category of navigable streams, or else in regions near 
head water which may lie within the public lands of the Forest 
Eeserve. It is stated on good authority that of 77.2 per cent of 
the water power resources of the country which require a Federal 



SPECIAL LECTURES 149 

permit, less than 4 per cent has been developed, while of 22 per 
cent of those resources which do not require a Federal permit 
25 per cent has been developed. (This, of course, may be partly- 
due to inaccessibility, lack of market, etc.) As a matter of fact 
many undeveloped water powers are in whole or in part under 
control of the Federal Government, either because they are on 
navigable streams or require the use of public lands. With 
respect to these powers the policy of the Federal Government in 
recent years has been such that their development, instead of 
being encouraged, has been almost prohibited. I will endeavor 
to briefly summarize the situation. 

Federal Acts prior to 1899 had prohibited the building of 
dams in navigable rivers in such manner as to obstruct or hinder 
navigation or in places where they might interfere with actual 
navigation until the plans for such works should be approved by 
the Secretary of War. In 1899 an act was passed requiring the 
consent of Congress for the building of such structures and the 
approval of the plans by the Chief of Engineers and the Secre- 
tary of War. Since the passage of this act it has been customary 
to obtain a special act of Congress for the development of each 
water power on navigable streams. These acts generally require 
very properly that any changes which may be rendered necessary 
if the structure is found to obstruct navigation in the future 
shall be carried out by the owners at their own expense. 

In 1906 the so-called General Dam Act was passed, in which 
further restrictions were added, requiring the permittee to con- 
struct, maintain, and operate at his own expense such locks or 
other structures or appliances which the Secretary of War at 
any time might deem necessary in the interests of navigation, and 
that if Congress should authorize the construction of a lock for 
navigation in connection with a dam, the owner should convey 
to the United States, free of cost, the title to such land as might 
be required, and should operate such locks, and maintain such 
lights and signals, at his own expense, as the Secretary of Com- 
merce and Labor should prescribe. These conditions were not 
obligatory, but they might be imposed by the Secretary of War 
at his option, although another section of the act allowed the 
United States to construct and maintain locks or other struc- 



150 VNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SJEJMICENTENABT 

tures required for navigation at its own expense. The main 
objection to the act, however, was that it was revocable by the 
Government at any time. In 1910 the act of 1906 was amended 
and still further restrictions added, providing for the collection 
of a charge for any head-water improvements made by the 
United States which might improve the flow of the stream, even 
though the permittee did not profit by them. Any act was made 
revocable at any time, but, if revoked, the United States was to 
pay the owners the reasonable value of the works, as decided by 
the court if not by agreement. Permits were to be given for a 
period not exceeding fifty years. This last act was, therefore, 
more fair to the permittee than that of 1906, because it provided 
that if the rights should be revoked the owner should receive 
compensation. It did not, however, provide for any compen- 
sation at the end of the period of the lease, which could not be 
greater than fifty years, nor for any renewal at that time. The 
owner, therefore, who developed the water power would have to 
amortize or receive back his entire capital during the fifty year 
period. 

It will be observed that by this last act the permit was re- 
vocable at any time : if revoked the United States was to pay com- 
pensation, and had a term not to exceed fifty years, without 
compensation or renewal at the end of that period ; also that the 
permittee might be required to give land for locks and to con- 
struct and operate such locks at his own expense. Notwithstand- 
ing the fact that by constructing the dam he made a large con- 
tribution toward rendering the stream navigable, he was required, 
or might be required to contribute still more. There was no 
question as to the propriety of his paying for any benefit which 
he might receive from head-water improvements, if he actually 
received it. The government also reserved the right to alter and 
amend the act at any time. Any riparian owner building a dam 
for power purposes, therefore, placed himself entirely at the 
mercy of the Federal Government. But even these restrictions 
were not sufficient for those entirely well-meaning and enthusi- 
astic persons who maintained that the government should not 
give away any of its rights on navigable streams or on the public 
domain, but who failed to perceive the importance of encourag- 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 151 

ing water power development. They maintained that, in addi- 
tion, the permittee should be charged for the power developed. 
They insisted on the imposition of such charge, together with the 
other burdens referred to, being placed upon riparian owners who 
desired to utilize their natural riparian rights and incidentally 
to confer a considerable benefit upon the government without 
expense to it by improving the navigability of the stream. Sev- 
eral bills providing for the construction of dams across navigable 
streams were vetoed in 1908, 1909, and 1912, because they con- 
tained no provision for compensation, or because the act of 1906 
did not terminate the permit at some fixed time. There was 
great difference of opinion in Congress regarding these matters, 
and in general it may be said that Congress was in favor of 
greater liberality toward permittees, while the executives believed 
in restriction. In 1913 a bill to permit the construction of a 
dam for water power purposes across the Connecticut River, 
which provided for compensation to the government, to which the 
applicants for the privilege had agreed, was defeated in Congress 
by the votes of those who were willing to give the company the 
privilege without compensation but were unwilling to establish 
the precedent or to recognize the principle that the government 
is entitled to receive it. They believed that while it had the 
power, it had not the legal or moral right to accept it. 

Prior to January 30, 1912, the Federal Government expended 
at the Des Moines Rapids on the Mississippi River the sum of 
$1,458,103 for inadequate navigation facilities, and prior to 
June 30, 1912, the sum of $12,184,987 for navigation improve- 
ments on the entire stretch of the river between the mouth of 
the Missouri and St. Paul. Since 1910 the Mississippi River 
Power Company as a private investment has expended upward 
of $20,000,000 at the Des Moines Rapids, and has constructed a 
magnificent dam with locks of deep draft. 

On the Coosa River in Alabama, which is navigable in its 
upper and its lower portions, but not in an intermediate distance 
of about one hundred miles, in which improvements by the gov- 
ernment have been considered impracticable on account of the 
expense, navigation improvements had cost prior to 1876 about 
$1,500,000. Under an act of 1907 a water power dam has been 



152 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

constructed without expense to the government at a cost of over 
$2,000,000, and in 1912 a similar improvement was proposed at 
another place at nearly the same cost. This was vetoed because 
no compensation was provided. In this case the applicants pro- 
posed to build a nitrate plant, producing a product valuable for 
fertilizers or explosives. If this bill had not been vetoed, this 
country would have had a nitrate plant today. As it was, when 
the permit was refused the applicants went to Canada and 
located their plant there. 

Similar restrictions have been urged upon the government 
and adopted with reference to the development of water power 
on the public domain. Here it is, of course, proper that if gov- 
ernment lands are used the permittee should either pay for them 
outright or pay a reasonable annual charge. Where, however, 
the public domain is only incidentally affected, as, for instance, 
where some portion of it would be flooded by the pond created 
by the dam, or where government land is crossed by flumes or 
transmission lines, if water power development is to be encour- 
aged it is desirable that the permittee should acquire a permanent 
right or that, at all events, he should not be subjected to any 
onerous restrictions. This case, however, according to present 
regulations is treated just the same as the case where the govern- 
ment owns the site of the power itself. The main obstacle to 
development in these cases does not arise from the rates which 
are charged, which are generally reasonable, but from the form 
and condition of the permit, which at present is revocable at any 
time at the will of the government department by which it is 
granted, and also subject to other deterrent restrictions. Can 
you imagine that investors will knowingly put their money into 
water power developments if the fact that a small part of the 
transmission line which may lie upon government lands subjects 
the entire development to the charge of instant revocation of its 
rights upon the whim of a cabinet officer? As a matter of fact, 
on March 2, 1909, the Secretary of Agriculture and the Secretary 
of the Interior did revoke some twenty-five permits, substituting 
permits with different conditions. It may be that the revocations 
in this case were not made for the purpose of embarrassing the 
permittee, but were to meet altered conditions; but the fact 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 153 

remains that permits could be revoked and have been revoked at 
the pleasure of a cabinet officer, and that the revocations made did 
embarrass the permittee. 

Among the other provisions with reference to water powers on 
the public lands which hinder the development of power are the 
following : If the government takes the property, the price paid 
is to be fixed by the government or by a member of the cabinet. 
It is sometimes provided that a company operating under a gov- 
ernment permit shall not sell more than fifty per cent of its 
power, or some other percentage, to any one concern. How could 
railroad electrification be promoted under such restrictions? 
Rental rates, which, as we have stated above, are properly im- 
posed, may be revoked by the Secretary and new ones imposed at 
periods of not less than ten years. In imposing new rates, appre- 
ciation in land values is considered as income in estimating a 
fair return to the investor, who, of course, never receives this 
appreciation, since the land is used and necessary for the works. 
Notwithstanding this, in case the property is taken by the United 
States or by state or municipal corporations only the original 
cost of the tangible property is to be paid to the owner. He is 
here not to be allowed the appreciation of land. 

The inadequacy of the present laws to encourage water power 

development has been recognized by several cabinet members 

directly concerned, who have referred to them as "absolutely 

inadequate and thoroughly unsound in principle and practice." 

Please remember, then, that the present defects of water power 

legislation may be summed as follows, as outlined in the report 

of the committee of the Chamber of Commerce of the United 

States : 

Water Powers on the Piiblic Domain 

As to water powers on the public domain (lands the title to 
which is in the United States), — a permit has to be obtained from 
the Department of Agriculture or the Department of the Interior, 
whichever has control over the site in question, and, no matter how 
much the investment required, the permittee must accept a permit 
which is upon the face and in fact, arbitrarily revocable at any 
time, — that is, revocable by the same department that grants the 
permit. His permit also may be made subject to any conditions 
which the department may see fit to impose at the time the permit 
is granted. But this is not all, for his permit is made subject to 
any further condition which the same department may at any time 
choose to impose, adding further burdens or restrictions even after 



154 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

Ms investment has been made. Indeed, if a homesteader happens 
to make entry upon the land covered by the site occupied by the 
investor's water-power plant, then immediately the permit is, by 
virtue of such entry, automatically revoked. And in neither case_ is 
the investor protected by provision for compensation. His entire 
investment is at the hazard of loss or confiscation from the moment 
it is made. 

Again, even if the water-power site is located outside of the 
public domain and it becomes necessary to use or cross any part of 
the public domain for a transmission line or otherwise, then, no 
matter how slight the use, a permit must be gotten for such use, 
and the same hazard of revocation prevails as in the case of a 
permit for a public domain site. 

The result is that, out of about 5,000,000 kilowatts of energy 
commercially feasible to be developed from the water powers upon 
the public domain, only about one-tenth have been developed. 
4,500,000 kilowatts of energy on the public domain are unneces- 
sarily and unreasonably allowed to continue to waste, because the 
legislative restrictions and hazards prevent the necessary invest- 
ment of private capital. 

Water Potvers on Navigable Streams Outside the Public Domain 

Under the present status (Acts of 1906 and 1910) applying to 
water powers outside the public domain, the term of the permit 
cannot exceed fifty years, and at the end of that time the permittee 
has no rights whatever. No consideration is taken of the length of 
time required to build up his business and to get on a profit-paying 
basis, nor of the necessary investment to keep his plant up-to-date. 
At the end of the 50-year term, or a shorter term if it were made 
shorter, he must lose his entire investment. To save himself from 
this loss he must amortize his plant, which is impossible; that is, 
he must add to his charges for service such amounts, beyond the 
otherwise ordinary charges necessary to bring a fair profit, as are 
sufficient to pay him back by the end of his term his entire invest- 
ment. In many instances this would make his charges beyond the 
rate which would bring a demand for his service. 

But this is not his only hazard. His permit may be arbitrarily 
revoked at any time before the end of his term, and that, too, 
without compensating him adequately for his investment. More- 
over, arbitrary conditions at the will of the War Department may 
be imposed, and the nature and extent of the burdens or hazards 
which may thus be arbitrarily imposed are left indefinite and un- 
certain. Furthermore, he is subject to such conditions not only 
imposed at the time and as a part of his permit, but it is also 
subject to other indefinite and uncertain conditions and burdens 
which may be imposed subsequently thereto. 

This makes it impossible for any iuA^estor, acting under such a 
consent of the Congress and a permit issued thereunder, to com- 
pute with any business-like approximation the amount of the invest- 
ment which he may ultimately be compelled to make. Of course, 
where the investment-cost per horse power produced exceeds a fixed 
sum, varying under various conditions, the enterprise is not com- 
mercially feasible; that is, development and operation mean a loss 
of profit and a loss of investment. These water-power developments 
require large capital and careful financing, all of which is impos- 
sible in the face of these uncertainties and hazards before which 
capital necessarily shrinks. There have been developments on 



SPECIAL LECTURES 155 

navigable streams within the past few years, but none of these has 
been made under any permit granted under act of Congress since 
1907. These developments are under consents granted under prior 
acts. 

These are the reasons for the present stagnation of water-power 
development on navigable streams in this country. The legislative 
defects now existing are apparent and not denied by any sane 
student of the subject. 

The present administration appears to recognize the difficulty 
and is endeavoring to deal with it. The Committee of the 
Chamber of Commerce of the United States, as above stated, has 
prepared a referendum. This committee has made the following 
recommendations : 

1. As to all developments, whether within or outside the public 
domain, a separate act of Congress should not as at present be 
required for each development; but the authority to issue permits 
should be vested in some department or commission designated for 
that purpose and under conditions protective of the interest of the 
public and of the investor. 

The advisability of this action has been generally recognized 
by most students of the question. 

2. Permits should be issued for a period of at least 50 years, 
unless at the option of the applicant a shorter period is agreed upon,, 
and should be irrevocable, except for cause. 

It will not be sufficient to fix the term of a permit as "not 
exceeding 50 years. ' ' This would allow the government authority 
to dictate a shorter period. Capital investments in water power 
development should be allowed at least a 50-year period in order 
to insure a reasonable average annual return, making up in later 
years for losses incurred throughout the period necessary to 
build up the business. A 50-year period is recognized very 
generally among financiers as the shortest reasonable period for 
such an investment. 

3. A toll should be imposed by the government only on power 
developments on the public domain or benefited by head-water im- 
provements maintained by the government. Such tolls should be 
based upon the horse power actually developed, used, and sold. The 
tolls should be reasonable, and proportionate to the benefits actually 
derived. 

A distinction is not always recognized, as it should be, between 
tolls exacted for permits for sites on the public domain and those 
exacted under permits to develop power on navigable streams 
outside the public domain. Tolls, as such, exacted for the pur- 
pose of revenue, are not justifiable in reason or, according to 



156 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

good authorities, in law when imposed under permits for the 
improvement of navigable streams outside the public domain. 

The government owns the public domain and when it grants 
a permit for a site on the public domain it may reasonably exact 
a toll, but a permit for a development upon a navigable stream 
not on the public domain is simply a permit to improve riparian 
rights owned by the applicant, and the sole justification for even 
requiring a permit in such a case is to protect the paramount 
right of the government to regulate and protect navigation. On 
such streams, therefore, a toll, if exacted at all, should be simply 
in the nature of a license fee to cover the cost to the government 
of such control and inspection of construction and operation as 
are necessary to protect the interests of navigation. 

In case the government makes improvements at the head- 
waters of the stream, which improve its flow, and is, therefore, 
beneficial to water powers below, it is proper that the amount of 
such actual benefit received should be paid back, in part at least, 
by all the users of water power, in order to reimburse the govern- 
ment to some extent for the operation of the headwater improve- 
ment. It is to be observed, however, that navigation interests 
benefit by such headwater improvements equally with water 
powers and perhaps more so, and that this benefit is given without 
charge to those who profit from the navigation facilities, for the 
federal policy regarding navigation is stated by the act of Febru- 
ary 27, 1911, as follows: 

No tolls or operating charges whatever shall be levied upon or 
collected from any vessel, barge, or other water craft, passing 
through any lock, canal, canalized river, or other work for the use 
or benefit of navigation now belonging to the United States or 
which may be hereafter acquired or constructed. 

It is difficult to see why, in view of this provision, any toll, even 
for headwater improvements, should be levied upon users of water 
power; for it discriminates against them in comparison with 
navigation interests, while, as a matter of fact, the development 
of water power is much more beneficial to the public and ought 
to be much more encouraged than the development of inland 
navigation. 

Any toll levied for headwater improvements should be accur- 
ately defined. If stated as so much "horse power per annum" 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 157 

it is uncertain whether it is to be based on the number of potential 
horse power possible of development at the site, whether or not 
developed, utilized, or sold ; or whether on the basis of the actual 
horse power generated at the site as a matter of fact, without 
reference to the quantity utilized; or again, whether upon the 
power actually developed, used and sold.- The latter basis alone 
should be the proper basis of the toll. The owner of the site 
might have at his disposal already much more than he could find 
a market for, and any headwater improvements might simply 
result in a greater flow of water over his dam, without benefit 
to him. Why, then, should he be taxed for such headwater im- 
provements, which he has not asked for, does not desire, and 
cannot use? 

4. If public lands form only a small and incidental part of the 
entire development, the licensee should be entitled to acquire the 
right to use such lands, paying the government fair and just com- 
pensation for such use. 

One of the greatest obstacles to development of water power 
on the public domain in cases where it is necessary for a trans- 
mission line or pipe line to cross a small portion of government 
land, but in which the site of the power itself is not on the 
public domain, is the impossibility of obtaining any assurance 
from the government that he can get the necessary rights, under 
any reasonable tenure, which will assure him of security in his 
investment. Any such slight use of government lands which may 
be necessary to his enterprise may under present regulations 
result in arbitrary revocation of his entire permit, and may, 
therefore, mean the destruction of his entire investment. 

5. At the expiration of the license period the government should 
have the right to recapture the property for itself or for a new 
licensee upon the payment of fair and just compensation for the 
property and for all dependent property, if taken; and if the 
dependent property is not taken, then fair and just compensation 
should be paid for all severance damages. 

Provision should be made that, all things being equal, the 
original licensee have priority over any new licensee. 

No great development of water will take place unless the 
rights of permittees at the expiration of the permit are properly 
protected. It seems clear that the government should have the 
power to recapture the property at that time by paying for it its 
fair value at that time. It should not have the power to take a 



158 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

portion of the entire property, leaving to the owner a portion 
which is vitally dependent upon the portion taken by the govern- 
ment, unless fair compensation is paid for the damage thereby 
sustained. 

6. At the expiration of the license period the government should 
(1) agree with the licensee as to the terms of a new license, (2) 
recapture for itself or for a new licensee, or (3) continue the license 
under the original terms. 

If the government does not desire to take over the property 
at the expiration of the license it is clear that it should be obliged 
either to continue the license under the original terms or agree 
upon new terms with the old licensee. It should not have the 
power to force the old licensee to accept its own terms. 

7. Eates and services should be regulated by state commissions 
where the service is intrastate, and only by federal authority where 
the service is interstate and the commissions of the states which are 
directly concerned do not agree or there is no state commission. 

The exercise of any federal jurisdiction over the issuance of 
securities would be unnecessary and unwise. 

8. No preference should be allowed as between applicants, 
whether a municipality or otherwise, which amounts to the granting 
at the expense of the government of a subsidy creating unequal 
competition in the same market. 

Some bills relating to this subject have proposed that muni- 
cipalities or states should be granted permits without charge while 
private parties must pay a toll. This would make it possible 
after a private company had developed a power and was selling 
it, for instance, for electric lighting purposes, for the muni- 
cipality to develop another power and enter into competition 
with the existing company, not only for municipal purposes but 
for private purposes, which might result in the ruin of the 
original company. It should not be possible for such a condition 
to arise. It would mean putting into the market a competitor 
subsidized at the expense of the government. It would mean 
that a private licensee would under a government license expend 
time and money to build up a market and business and when, 
perhaps after a long period, the time for making profits began 
then the government would under another license give to a 
municipal corporation, free of cost, other power with which, as 
a competitor, to enter into a market already built up under 
burdens of expense imposed by the government. There would be 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 159 

competitors in the same market, the one under the burden of 
expenditure imposed by the government permits, licenses or 
leases, and the other subsidized either by a remission of capital 
expenses or of tolls and, therefore receiving free of cost the 
benefits of improvements paid for by the government. 

In view of the benefits to the community which are brought 
about by the development of water power, it is earnestly to be 
hoped that action will soon be taken by Congress which, instead 
of restricting, will encourage to the greatest possible extent the 
investment of capital in these enterprises. Without any interest 
in any of them and looking at the subject purely as a student 
of public policy, the speaker has become convinced, especially in 
view of the developments during this war, that it will be better 
for the Federal Government to pay a subsidy to encourage the 
development of water power and to remove all restrictions so far 
as possible, always reserving to the government the power to 
take over the property at any time in the future at its fair value 
at such time. Perhaps when that time comes the courts will have 
finally decided what fair value is, and how it is to be determined. 



[Fifth Lecture] 

SOME CONTROVERSIAL POINTS IN THE VALUATION 

OF PUBLIC UTILITY PROPERTIES 

The subject of the valuation of public utilities and other prop- 
erties has come prominently into the public eye within two or 
three decades. It has led almost to the formation of a new branch 
of engineering, and has attracted the attention of many economists 
and publicists. 

The problem of estimating the value of an industrial property 
is of course old. Bankers and business men have for many years 
been obliged to attack it in order to form an opinion which would 
justify purchase or sale, or the flotation of new securities, par- 
ticularly since the era of industrial combination set in. But the 
great increase in interest in the subject has been mainly the 
result of the increasing regulation of public utilities by state and 
national regulating commissions. AVhen it was decided that 



160 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

public authorities could fix the rates to be charged by public 
utility corporations, the question naturally arose at the outset, 
upon what sum should the company be allowed to earn at least 
a fair return? When it became necessary for a public board to 
decide upon new issues of capital, or upon the proper total capital 
to be allowed the company or upon the price to be paid for a 
taking, the question naturally arose, what is the fair value of the 
property represented? When it became necessary to allow a 
company to earn a certain depreciation allowance, it was natur- 
ally at once queried, upon what value shall such allowance be 
reckoned ? 

However, it is easy to go too far in the application of any 
theory. There is clearly no relation between any particular 
railroad rate, as, for instance, that between San Francisco and 
Chicago, and the value of the property. The rate between com- 
petitive points must be the same by all roads, independent of 
value. The most that can be said of railroad rates is that if the 
earnings as a whole, over a large district, are not sufficient to 
give a fair return on the total value of the property, they should 
be increased, and vice versa. Yet even here, some roads, by 
virtue of low cost of construction or exceptional efficiency of 
management, may prosper on the old rates, while other roads 
may become bankrupt. The limits for the use of a valuation at 
all is a subject for careful consideration. We are in danger of 
forgetting that, in the words of Jefferson, ' ' That country is best 
governed which is least governed." May it not be that we are 
regulating too much, and forgetting that after all, the principle 
that rates should be determined by what the traffic will bear, 
rightly applied, is perhaps the best ? At all events, this principle 
has been the one under which our railroad system has mainly 
developed, and it has developed business and given us lower rates 
and better service than in any other country on earth. 

It is very generally assumed that the courts have decided that 
a railroad company, or any public utility company, shall earn no 
more than a fair return upon its property. This, however, is not 
my understanding of the situation. I do not understand that the 
Supreme Court has ever established that doctrine. The function 
of that Court is only to decide whether any action violates the 



SPECIAL LECTUBJES 161 

Constitution of the United States, and in rate cases to decide when 
a rate is so low as to result in confiscation of private property. 
In exercising this function I understand that it has decided that 
one criterion by which to decide whether rates fixed by legislative 
authority are so low as to deprive a railroad company of its 
property without just compensation, according to the Constitu- 
tion, is that if those rates prevent the company from earning less 
than a fair return upon the present value of the property used 
in the service of the public, then those rates are too low and 
violate the Constitution. It has never decided that rates must be 
fixed at such a point that only a fair return will be earned, and 
it is easy to see that there may be other elements entering into 
the problem. A railroad company experiences years of depres- 
sion, during which earnings are less than normal. In order to 
earn a fair return on the average it must, therefore, earn more 
than a fair return in good years to balance the years in which it 
will earn less, under any rate schedule; and, furthermore, it 
must be allowed to earn a surplus, to provide for unforseen con- 
tingencies, such as floods, earthquakes, etc. Rates cannot be 
suddenly changed, as in the case of an industrial property, to 
conform to varying conditions. A certain degree of flexibility 
of rates, giving the opportunity to meet emergencies, now often 
impossible under our regulating system, is much to be desired, 
but, in general, rates should be stable. The basis of a fair return 
upon the present value of the property used in the service of the 
public seems, therefore, clearly to indicate only the minimum 
return. 

The Supreme Court, however, has distinctly said that if the 
rates charged by a public utility corporation do not afford a fair 
return on the fair present value of the property used in the 
service of the public, those rates are confiscatory and therefore 
unconstitutional. It becomes necessary, therefore, in many cases 
to find such fair present value. 

The term value is one of the most uncertain in the dictionary. 
It may mean very different things. The problem of ascertaining 
the present value of a complex operating property is consequently 
necessarily one of those uncertain problems, partly depending 
upon engineering facts, partly upon economic doctrine, and 



162 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

partly upon a perception of justice and equity as between the 
public and the owners, in which almost every question, including 
the desirability of a valuation at all, is involved in controversy ; 
while upon some fundamental principles the opinions of those 
who might be deemed equally capable of forming a judgment 
may differ widely. It is, therefore, not a subject to be dealt with 
by the young, the immature, or the prejudiced. It is not a proper 
subject for the college curriculum, except for selected students 
in graduated courses. It calls for the power of logical, careful 
reasoning, for experience, for good judgment, and above all for 
a well balanced mind, fair and impartial, which sees things as 
they are, has no prejudices, appreciates the wide bearings of 
the subject, can judge of remote consequences, can disentangle 
conflicting threads of argument, and can take the broadest and 
sanest view of the relations of the public to the individual. The 
problems of valuation are indeed more dependent for a correct 
solution upon attitude of mind and capacity for logical thought 
than upon anything else, and next upon experience, that great 
and only teacher. 

Where almost every point involved is the subject of contro- 
versy and difference of opinion it is difficult to select any special 
points for discussion; yet it seems not inappropriate to choose 
a few of the fundamental principles, and to outline some of the 
main differences between opposing points of view. I do this the 
more readily because of the increasing popular attention that 
the subject is attracting, and in the hope that if some of you have 
not yet thought deeply upon these questions it may suggest some 
ideas, and indicate to you the many uncertainties of the subject 
and the necessity for careful consideration of many points of 
view before arriving at a conclusion. My own personal views 
are, naturally, strenuously opposed by those who think differently. 
My only excuse for speaking of this subject lies in its increasing 
popular importance, and in the fact that circumstances have 
called upon me, during the past ten years, to make valuations of 
property aggregating nearly two billion dollars in value, so that, 
at all events, however I may lack in judgment or sanity I cannot 
be charged with inexperience. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 163 

As a primary basis for ascertaining fair present value the 
following are available: 

1. The cost of the property to date ; new, or after deduct- 
ing depreciation. 

2. The cost of reproducing the property at the present 
time; new, or after deducting depreciation. 

3. The market value of its securities. 

4. The capitalized earnings. 

The basis of the commercial value of a public utility, or of 
any other commercial property, is plainly earning power, present 
or potential. No one would willingly invest in or buy such a 
property unless he could see the prospect of a fair return. It 
might be earning nothing, or even losing heavily at the time, but 
he might not see possibilities of readjustment, improvement, or 
additional business, or other possibilities which would justify 
him in paying a considerable sum for the property. Most public 
utilities are naturally and properly monopolies. It is not in the 
interests of the public in the end that two railroads should be 
built in the same territory where one is ample for the business. 
If two exist, they must to a certain extent, in the public interest, 
be operated as a combined monopoly. The days of unrestricted 
competition have passed. But a public utility is a monopoly 
which derives its power in part from a charter or rights conferred 
upon it by the public. It must, therefore, be subject to public 
regulation, and must be operated in such a manner that none of 
the rights of the public, legal or moral, will be infringed. In a 
certain limited sense it is the agent of the public which has con- 
ferred upon it the right to perform a certain service which the 
public requires. 

The Supreme Court has recognized the above four primary 
elements in ascertaining fair value, together with other elements 
not here mentioned. In rate cases present earnings cannot, of 
course, be considered as a basis, because the object is to fix the 
rates and the earnings depend upon the rates. Some other basis 
must here be found. The market value of the securities can be 
found at any time by an accountant. They may, however, be 
temporarily and unduly inflated or depressed, so that the market 
value at any given time may not represent the value of the 



164 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

property. There remain the other two bases of value, viz. : the 
original cost and the cost of reproduction ; and the first point to 
which I wish to direct your attention is the great difference of 
opinion which exists with reference to these two methods of 
finding value. Each has its ardent advocates. It is claimed on 
the one hand, in favor of original cost, that this represents the 
sacrifice which the owners have made to produce the property, 
and that they are entitled to a fair return upon no more than this 
sum, or, if the property is taken, to a payment of no more than 
this sum. 

As one college economist expresses it. 

On any sound principle there should be no valuation for rate 
regulation but history, that is, a statement of outlay, of money 
spent and services rendered, nothing more. . . . As an agent the 
utility exercises the right of eminent domain, must give an account 
of its stewardship, is subject to continuous control, is liable for 
compulsory service, and must cooperate with all other public agents 
of its principals, the State. 

It is held by this writer, and by some others, that the relation 
between the public and the utility company is strictly the legal 
relation of principal and agent. Your able California attorney, 
Mr. Max Thelen, among others, takes this view. The advocates 
of this view hold that the agent is only entitled to receive his 
expenses and fair compensation for his services, and that if he 
makes a profit he "may be held as a trustee and compelled to 
account to his principal for all profits and advantages acquired 
by him out of the relationship." This leads them to the con- 
clusion that a public utility should receive a return only ' ' on the 
money reasonably and properly expended in the acquisition and 
construction of its works actually and properly in use to carry 
out its agency, no more and no less. ' ' If lands were donated by 
the State to the company to enable it to construct its works, the 
company is not to be allowed to earn any return upon those lands 
when they have become valuable, or if it acquires lands at a low 
cost it is only to be allowed a return upon such actual cost. 

On the other hand, this view is rejected by most students of 
the subject. It seems far-fetched and fanciful to most people, 
and it has never had the sanction of the highest courts. Those 
who oppose it urge that while a public utility may be termed in 
a limited sense the agent of the public, it is in no sense a legal 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 165 

agent. The conclusions above stated clearly do not follow when 
the principal has allowed that agent to manage the property for 
years without supervision or restriction and perhaps at a loss, 
and without a definite understanding at the beginning as to the 
legal relation between the parties, has allowed it to charge what 
rates it pleased, subject to competition, to earn what profits it 
could, to go through bankruptcy, perhaps several times, without 
interference by the principal. They urge that rights were given 
to the company by its charter because those rights were necessary 
to enable the works to be constructed, for without the power of 
taking land by eminent domain it would probably be practically 
impossible to construct a railroad. They urge that public lands 
were given originally in some cases because without giving them 
the public could not induce the company to build the works, and 
that once given they are the property of the company, like any 
other private property; they maintain that the public desired 
the works to be built because it saw that they were essential for 
the prosperity of the State, but that the risk of loss was left 
entirely with the company, and, therefore, that it should have 
the ownership of its property and the possibility of profits when 
they become possible. They say that lands originally given to 
the company by the state were given absolutely, without con- 
dition or agreement, that they were intended to be, and have 
always been considered to be the obsolute property of the com- 
pany, that they were given, as a matter of fact, in consideration 
of advantages which the public expected to receive in compensa- 
tion and which the public has actually received manifold in 
compensation. They say that if the company was merely the 
legal agent of the public that relationship should have been estab- 
lished and understood by both parties at the beginning, which 
has never been the case. They say that if the legal relation of 
principal and agent is to hold, the agent must be subject to the 
continual supervision of the principal, and that after allowing 
a railroad company to manage its own affairs for decades, to go 
through foreclosures and receiverships without any guarantee 
of protection against loss on the part of the principal, it is in- 
equitable and illegal for the principal at a later time to step in, 
claiming that the legal relation of principal and agent is to be 
assumed and that the company, after it has become prosperous, 



166 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENABT 

is then to be allowed to earn no more than a fair return upon 
the original cost. 

Moreover, the highest courts have stated, again and again, 
that while it is at least the present value of the property which 
the company employs for the public convenience which is entitled 
to a fair return in rates, or to be paid as compensation in a 
taking, this fair value is not the original cost thereof. For 
instance, in San Diego Land and Town Co. vs. Jasper, 189 U. S. 
442, the court said: 

The main object of attack is the valuation of the plant. It no 
longer is open to dispute that under the Constitution what the com- 
pany is entitled to demand in order that it may have just com- 
pensation is a fair return upon the reasonable value of the property 
at the time it is being used for the public. — San Diego Land and 
Town Co. vs. National City, 174 U. S. 793-757. 

That is decided and is decided as against the contention that 
you ought to take actual cost of the plant, annual depreciation, etc., 
and to allow a fair profit on that footing, over and above expenses. 

Again, in the Minnesota Rate Cases, 230 U. S. 454, the court 
said: 

It is clear that in ascertaining the present value we -are not 
limited to the consideration of the amount of the actual investment. 
If that has been reckless or improvident losses may be sustained 
which the community does not underwrite. As the company may 
not be protected in its actual investment, if the value of its prop- 
erty be plainly less, so the making of a just return for the use of 
the property involves recognition of its fair value if it be more 
than its cost. The property is held in private ownership and it is 
that property and not the original cost of it of which the owner may 
not be deprived without due process of law. [Italics mine. G. F. S.] 

The advocates of the original cost theory are always careful to 
remark that the first cost is not to be taken if the company has 
been wasteful or extravagant, that is, if the value is less than 
that cost; but they strenuously oppose making any additions to 
that first cost if the investment has been skillfully made and has 
resulted in an increased value to the property. 

As a matter of fact, the first cost theory does place a premium 
upon and encourage wasteful, extravagant, and inefficient con- 
struction. Every engineer knows that there is a wide range 
within which the cost of construction may be reasonable. In a 
case in which the speaker was recently consulted there were four 
bids for constructing a certain property, all by responsible and 
skilled contractors. The highest three bids were close together, 
although there was no evidence of collusion, and were double the 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 167 

lowest bid. The latter proved to be too low, and the contractor 
lost money; his actual cost being about two-thirds that of the 
highest-bidder. Even the highest bid could not have been con- 
sidered an unreasonable one. 

When a railroad is constructed it is given certain rights by 
the public, but those rights are only those which are necessary 
in order to secure the construction. A railroad is given the right 
of eminent domain because without that right it would be im- 
practicable to build the road. So of the right given to a street 
railway company to lay its tracks in the streets, or to a gas com- 
pany to lay its mains in the streets. The public grants the 
rights because it wants the commodity which the utility is to 
furnish. Not infrequently it is more anxious to grant the charter 
than the company is to receive it. It leaves the company un- 
restricted for many years in the conduct of its business and in 
its financial management, and finally comes in to regulate it and 
to fix its value. In the meantime the community has grown, 
lands which perhaps were donated to the company have increased 
in value in common with all other lands in the neighborhood, 
largely due to the presence of the utility, and now it is said by 
the advocates of original cost that since those lands were donated 
to the company it is not to be allowed to earn any return upon 
the value of those lands, because the public should not be required 
to pay any rates for what it has itself given. In the meantime 
the property may have changed hands a dozen times at prices 
determined by the competitive theory, that is to say, based upon 
the earnings which the public has allowed the company to make 
without restriction. The original company may have been suc- 
ceeded several times by new companies. Nevertheless, they claim 
it is now to be allowed to earn a return only upon the original 
cost, notwithstanding the decisions of the courts that costs is not 
value. 

The decisions of the courts are no stumbling block in the way 
of some of those who advocate this theory, and one of them, a 
college economist, sweeps the difficulties away by saying that the 
present uncertainties and unsatisfactory condition are due to 
these decisions of the Supreme Court and that they will continue 
until that Court is compelled by public opinion to reverse itself 
or until its power is changed by constitutional amendment. This 



168 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICFNTENABY 

illustrates the character of much of the discussion on this ques- 
tion. The author referred to evidently considers that he and he 
alone, and those who agree with him, are infallible, that anybody 
who disagrees with him is wrong, including the Supreme Court 
of the United States, which must be compelled to reverse itself. 
In connection with the original cost theory it is also asked by 
some, in case its value is to be ascertained on the basis of first 
cost, just what is meant? The first cost to whom? To the 
owners, or to previous owners? If your property is to be taken 
from you on the basis of its original cost, should that be its cost 
to you or to somebody else ? It is urged, for instance, that cer- 
tain individuals might get together, obtain a franchise, and build 
a railroad. They may be shrewd and far-sighted, may locate the 
road with exceptional skill, and may build it under exceptionally 
favorable conditions when prices are very low, or perhaps when 
they can get certain of the work done at prices which can never 
be again obtained. For instance, they may be able to get a 
good deal of their grading or filling done for nothing, or they 
may even be paid for it, for somebody else at the moment may 
have a large quantity of earth, taken perhaps from a subway or 
tunnel in a city, which he wants to dispose of, and unless he can 
dispose of it to the utility he will have to pay a large sum to 
carry it elsewhere. He may, therefore, be willing to dispose of it 
to the utility and to place it for next to nothing or even to make 
a payment therefore. At all events, the road may be supposed to 
be constructed at an extremely low cost. It fills a need and 
develops a good business, and a few years afterward some new 
parties appear and seeing that it was built most economically 
and has great possibilities, they may buy it from the original 
builders at a large advance over what the latter paid for it, and 
yet perhaps less than it would cost them at the time to reproduce 
it, or to build another road. They buy it at that price. Years 
go by and the property becomes subject to public regulation, and 
is now to be taken for public purposes, or its rates fixed. Is it 
equitable to pay the new owners what they paid for it or what 
their predecessors paid for it? 

Of course the answer which is made to this suggestion by those 
who hold the theory of principal and agent is that the agent of 
the public is the company and not the individuals who happen to 



SPECIAL LECTOBES 169 

own it and hence individual ownership is of no consequence. 
But how is this when not simply the stockholders have changed, 
but when the original corporation has been suceeded by a new 
one ? Is the new corporation the agent, or not ? If it is, then the 
cost to it should be taken ; if it is not, the whole theory falls. 

The case, however, is certainly not so simple as some would 
make it appear, nor can it be decided offhand by simply asserting 
that the Supreme Court is all wrong. Certain it is that the 
theory of principal and agent, and the use of first cost, if applied 
as some have urged that it should be applied would very likely 
wipe out millions of dollars of investment honestly made and 
even sanctioned by regulating commissions. 

Moreover, the theory of first cost, it is claimed, leaves entirely 
out of account the element of competition, which still remains 
to a certain extent, though under regulation. There may be two 
railroad lines between the same two cities, and extending no 
farther. One of them necessarily has the best location and 
originally cost much less than the other. If the rates are to be 
based upon original cost the more cheaply built road will obtain 
all the business, and the building of new roads will be absolutely 
prevented. This argument, of course, applies equally to the cost 
of reproduction theory, and indicates that as a basis for rates 
neither result is at all conclusive. Would this not be true equally 
in case of a taking ? If the public should take the more econom- 
ically built road at its original cost it would thereby become pos- 
sessed of an asset with which it could wage war against the later 
and more expensive road, to the extermination of the latter, 
although it had chartered it and was equally its principal. It is 
asked whether the state should use its paramount powers to ruin 
agencies that it has itself authorized. To many it is clear that 
no valuation has much, if any, relation to rates, which should be 
determined by what the traffice will bear. 

By some it is considered that public ownership is the only 
solution of these problems, but the experience with public owner- 
ship is decidedly against its advantage to the public, and especi- 
ally in a democracy it would be a distinct public menace. 

Another consideration is urged with reference to the original 
cost theory. If the basis of this theory is that it is the sacrifice 
made by the agent which is the basis of value, it must be his 



170 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

total sacrifice, and if in any years of the enterprise lie did not 
receive a fair return on his investment any deficiency below a 
fair return must be added to that investment and compounded 
from year to year. Additions of this kind may easily result in a 
great increase above the original cost investment. Moreover, it 
is not only the cost of the property that is to be taken but also 
the cost of developing the business to its present condition, 
including all expenditures, direct or indirect. 

Your able California attorney, Mr. Thelen, appears to hold 
this view, for he quotes with approval from a decision by another 
eminent Californian, Secretary Lane, who in the Western Ad- 
vance Kate Case said : 

Perhaps the nearest approximation to a fair standard is that of 
bona fide investment, the sacrifice made by the owners of the 
property, considering as part of the investment any shortage of 
return that there may be in the early years of the enterprise. Upon 
this, taking the life history of the road through a number of years, 
its promoters are entitled to a reasonable return. This, however, 
manifestly is limited, for a return should not be given upon waste- 
fulness, mismanagement, or poor judgment, and always there is 
present the restriction that no more than a reasonable rate shall 
be charged. 

Those who oppose the original cost method fail, however, to 
see why Mr. Lane should limit the shortage of return to the early 
years of the enterprise, or why every shortage from the beginning 
to the time of decision should not be allowed. They maintain 
also that if from the original cost is to be deducted any losses 
due to "wastefulness, mismanagement, or poor judgment," then 
there should also be allowed any profits accruing from economy, 
efficient management, and good judgment; and admitting that 
there is always present the restrictions that no more than a 
reasonable rate shall be charged, which Mr. Lane implies is a 
restriction independent of first cost, they claim that this means 
also that no less than a reasonable rate shall be charged, that is, 
a reasonable recompense for the service rendered, also entirely 
independent of first cost. 

Against this view that deficiencies of earnings should be in- 
cluded in original cost, it is urged by some that the mere physical 
property would be worth nothing aside from its operation, that 
the construction of the property means constructing a property 
that has, or is capable of having, business, but which without 



SPECIAL LECTURES 171 

the business is valueless. Giving the physical bare bones a value 
is only justified, they say, if it has the business too. They refuse, 
therefore, to allow any deficiency of earnings. In taking this 
ground they clearly abandon the position that the sacrifice of the 
owners is the fair value of the property. As for the capitalization 
of a deficiency in earnings it is also urged by a few that this 
would amount to a guarantee by the public of a fair return, 
which they say the public can never make even though it is a 
principal. This view, however, clearly involves a fallacy in regard 
to the meaning of the word guarantee. To allow a capitalization 
of a deficiency of earnings is not to guarantee a fair return. The 
public, of course, should never guarantee a public service cor- 
poration, which it charters, against being a losing venture; but 
ought it not to guarantee to it rates which, if those rates will 
produce the traffic, that is, if the traffic will bear those rates, 
will prevent it from being a losing venture ? As the price of any 
commodity, including transportation, is raised, the demand for 
it generally decreases. At some point the price will result in a 
demand which will produce the maximum return. That maxi- 
mum return may not be enough to constitute a fair return on the 
investment. In this ease the concern is a losing venture, and 
the public cannot guarantee it, and ought not to guarantee it 
against such contingency. But, on the other hand, if the public 
is to regulate rates and values, ought it not to guarantee a rate 
high enough to produce a fair return even on a value which 
includes deficiency of earnings in previous years, if such a result 
is possible? If this view is not taken no one will invest in a 
public utility. If you invest in a public utility you take some 
risk. You are willing to take the risk because your judgment 
tells you that the concern will be a success, but would you make 
the investment if you knew that the public was to come in later 
and prevent your receiving even a fair return on your invest- 
ment from the beginning though it might become capable of pro- 
ducing large returns? These illustrations are not fanciful. 
Street railways in many parts of the country are in a condition 
which justifies them. In Massachusetts they have become so 
seriously crippled that the public is not obtaining anything like 
the service that it ought to have. The shares of one corporation, 
in whose capitalization there is admittedly not a dollar of water,. 



172 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

which has been under public regulation from the beginning and 
some of whose stock has been issued at a price of $155 a share, 
as fixed by the state regulating body at the time, has been 
recently selling for under $30. 

The theory of cost of reproduction as a basis of value has 
also its defects and opponents. Those who oppose it are par- 
ticularly active and caustic in their criticism. They designate it 
by all sorts of epithets. One eminent critic of this theory and 
advocate of the original cost theory says that the reproduction 
cost theory is ''utterly dishonest." This critic knows perfectly 
well that the Supreme Court in at least two decisions has spoken 
favorably of this theory. In the Knoxville ca«e the Court said : 

The cost of reproduction is one way of ascertaining the present 
value of a plant like that of a public utility company, but that test 
would lead to obviously incorrect results if the cost of reproduction 
is not diminished by the depreciation which has come from age 
and use. 

In the Minnesota rate case the Court said: 

The cost of reproduction method is of service in ascertaining 
the present value of the plant when it is reasonably applied, and 
when the cost of reproducing the property may be ascertained with 
a proper degree of certainty, but it does not justify the acceptance 
of results which depend upon mere conjecture. 

Moreover, the same court in a later case, that of the Des 

Moines Gas Co. (238 U. S. 153), distinctly upheld the cost of 

reproduction method, saying, in approval of what had been done : 

After valuing the real estate and various items of personal 
property, as hereinafter stated, the master adopted as the only 
practical way, in his judgment, of determining the reasonable value 
of the buildings, their contents, yard structures, and the mains, 
house and street lamp service, and meters, the test of estimating 
the cost of reproducing them new and then estimating the deprecia- 
tion which should be deducted in order to obtain their present value. 

Notwithstanding these decisions of our highest court this critic 
says the theory is "utterly dishonest." 

Those who oppose the cost of reproduction method sometimes 
intimate that it is only used by those who desire to arrive at a 
high valuation. Thus, the same critic said, in an official decision, 
' ' The reproduction cost theory has during recent years become a 
fashionable one among many attorneys and managers of public 
service corporatiotis." He perhaps forgets that in the leading 
case of Smyth vs. Ames, counsel for the railroad maintained that 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 173 

the original investment should be the basis. It appears that, 
when the roads were built, wages were above normal, prices high, 
and gold at a heavy premium, and that when the action was 
brought prices had materially declined, so that it was estimated 
that the roads could then be reproduced for less than the original 
cost. On the other hand, counsel for the state then maintained 
that "the present value, as measured by the cost of reproduc- 
tion" was the proper basis. Hence the critic might equally well 
have said that the original cost theory had during recent years 
become a fashionable one among many attorneys for and members 
of public commissions. The value of the theory is to be judged 
not by the persons who hold it, but by its own merits and the 
decisions of the highest courts, which we should always respect 
though we may personally disagree with them. 

Those who uphold the cost of reproduction theory, so far as 
I have read their views, appear to be more reasonable and mod- 
erate in their expressions. They respect the opinions of the 
Supreme Court and neither term them utterly dishonest nor say 
that the Court must be forced to reverse itself. Most of them 
appear to believe, as the Supreme Court does, that neither repro- 
duction cost nor original cost is alone the criterion, though they 
believe that cost of reproduction, properly ascertained, is much 
nearer to fair present value than original cost, while some of the 
writers who support the original cost theory apparently maintain 
that it and they alone are infallible. The advocates of the repro- 
duction cost theory urge, certainly not without reason, that if, 
as the Supreme Court has said, it is the fair present value of the 
property which is to be the basis, then let us suppose the follow- 
ing case : 

Suppose a railroad passes through a town. It has its right of 
way, its bridges, its embankments. The problem is to find the 
present value. Suppose it should build a branch from its station 
in that town, diverting from its main line. It would have to buy 
property, build bridges and embankments. On the original cost 
theory, which no doubt here applies, the cost of its right of way 
would be its value. They ask then, is the present value of the 
right of way of the main line, only one hundred feet away, built 
fifty years ago, which goes through precisely similar property, 
any less than the value of the branch right of way just built 



174 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

simply because it was built earlier? Extend the illustration. 

Suppose that the railroad company needs to enlarge its yard and 

must widen its right of way or take a block adjoining one which 

it already possesses. It takes that property, enlarges its yard, 

builds its embankments and bridges if necessary. The cost of 

that new property is its value at the time. Is the value of the 

other block previously existing any less? It is in exactly the 

same locality and under similar conditions. Why, they say, 

should there be a difference in the present value ? 

Those who advocate the original cost method are seriously 

disturbed by the fear that the use of the cost of reproduction 

method will lead to rapidly increasing values and rates. Thus 

Commissioner Lane, in the Western Advance Rate case, referring 

to the contention of the Burlington Road that it was entitled to 

a return on unearned increment in land value, said : 

If this is a precise expression of what our courts will hold to 
be the law, then, as we are told, there is certainly the danger that 
we may never expect railroad rates to be lower than they are at 
present. On the contrary there is the unwelcome promise made in 
this case that they will continuously advance. 

and he adds: 

In the face of such auj economic philosophy, if 'stable and equit- 
able rates are to be maintained the suggestion has been made that 
it would be wise for the Government to protect its people by taking 
to itself these properties at present value rather than to await the 
day, perhaps twenty or thirty years hence when they will have 
multiplied in value ten or twenty fold. 

In the case of Buffalo Gas Co. vs. City of Buffalo (N. Y. Public 
Service Commission, 2nd District, Vol. 3, 633), the Commission 
said: 

A valuation m.ade in the case of this company in 1907 would 
produce vastly different results from a valuation made in 1912, 
owing to the different prices of pipe, and yet there can scarcely be 
any disagreement upon the proposition that the price of gas in 1907 
and 1912 should be substantially the same. A condition of things 
which permits the puMic to appeal to this Commission to fix the 
rate in times of financial distress when materials are low and labor 
is cheap and thereby obtain a low rate which shall obtain perman- 
ently or substantially so; and on the other hand which permits the 
company to appeal to the Commission to fix a rate at a time when 
labor is high and materials are dear, and thereby fix a higher rate 
to continue with a substantial permanency, is intolerable. If the 
Commission were to fix the price of iron pipe upon the prices now 
prevailing, next year they may be 50 degrees higher. Justice would 
require that the rate go up if the cost of reproduction now is to 
prevail; while, on the other hand, if pipe gets lower the rates should 
be lower. This would require a constant juggling with prices in 
order to carry out what would be deemed substantial justice. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 175 

To these criticisms of the method the following reply may be 
made. 

In the first place. Secretary Lane's suggestion, that railroad 
values may be multiplied ten or twentyfold, is an exaggeration. 
His fear seems to have reference mainly to the increase of land 
values, since values of the other elements may be expected to 
fluctuate up and down, generally speaking ; but the value of land 
in a railroad valuation is, on the average, only from about 15 per 
cent to 25 per cent of the total value, so that if land values 
should be multiplied ten times, which is very excessive, with other 
values unchanged on the average the total value of the property 
would be increased only about three times instead of "ten or 
twentyfold. ' ' 

Secretary Lane seems to think that railroad rates should be 
expected to be lower in future than at present, and the New York 
Public Service Commission seem to think that the price of gas 
should remain substantially the same. The price of money, of 
labor, of every material thing, varies from year to year, and it 
may be pertinent to ask why it should be assumed that the price 
of transportation or of gas should remain the same or should fall. 
It is, of course, desirable that rates should remain stable, and, 
if public service companies are allowed to earn a fair surplus to 
provide for fluctuations from year to year, they will remain 
fairly stable, as compared with the prices of materials or money. 
The price of a thing changes either because of conditions affect- 
ing it, which change its value, including among these supply and 
demand, or because of a general change in the value of a dollar. 
If, by reason of an excess of currency, the value of the dollar 
decreases, that is to say, if it takes more dollars to buy a given 
thing, why should transportation or gas, which are commodities, 
be exempt from the general change in price ? 

Further, with reference to Secretary Lane's suggestion, it is 
very doubtful in the minds of a great many people if protecting 
the people means limiting the taxes and other charges imposed 
upon them, whether the taking possession of the properties by 
the government will protect the people. The experience with 
government ownership does not show that it leads to decreased 
charges, although it may be possible to hide those charges in the 
general tax levy so that the average man may lose sight of them. 



176 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFOSNIA SEMICENTENABT 

Certainly many intelligent and unprejudiced men believe that a 
great disillusioning will come upon the American people if they 
resort to government ownership in the hope of reducing charges. 
Further, with reference to the statement of the New York 
Public Service Commission, it may be said that those who believe 
in the cost of reproduction method do not as a rule look upon a 
valuation as a thing to be made from year to year or whenever 
demanded by the public or the corporation. With the increase 
of public control, assuming the desirability of ascertaining the 
physical value of public utility properties or the necessity of 
doing so in some cases, these people maintain that such values 
should be ascertained once for all simply as a starting point. 
They believe that the past should be wiped out, and a new start 
made, that any past errors on the part of the companies in the 
way of financial mismanagement or overcapitalization, and any 
mistakes on the part of the public in allowing such things to 
happen, or in allowing rates which are too high, or rates which 
were so low as to result in financial embarrassment or bank- 
ruptcy, should equally be forgotten, but that a new start should 
now be made with a valuation of the physical property at the 
present time, and that hereafter such methods of accounting and 
such rules controlling the issue of securities and the application 
of the proceeds should be adopted as will insure that the value 
of the physical property at a future time can be ascertained on 
the basis of the present value and the operating results since it 
was made. This was even the view of Director Prouty, who, as 
a member of the Interstate Commerce Commission, in an address 
before the National Association of Manufacturers in New York 
in 1907 said: 

The popular impression that if the value of our railroads were 
known it would be easy for us to adjust rates that a fair return 
upon that value and only a fair return would be obtained, is entirely 
erroneous. The most that can be done in most cases in fixing the 
value of our railroads would be to determine the cost of their 
reproduction at the present time. . . . Such a valuation would , . . 
establish, as it were, a point of departure today from which future 
values might in some measure be reckoned. 

Commissioner Prouty evidently at that time believed that the 
only thing that could be done in the case of railroads was to use 
the cost of reproduction method, and he further evidently believed 



SPECIAL LECTURES 177 

that once applied it would be not necessary to use it again, but 
that it would serve as a point of departure for the future. This, 
I think, is the view taken by most advocates of the cost of 
reproduction method. 

These considerations may perhaps indicate to you the com- 
plicated character of the problem and especially the mental 
characteristics of some of the individuals who deal with it. They 
will perhaps substantiate the statement made at the beginning 
of this lecture that the attitude of mind with which a subject of 
this kind is approached is perhaps the most important element 
in arriving at a correct conclusion. 

As illustrating the lengths to which some advocates of the 
original cost theory go, one of them maintains that overhead 
expenses for engineering, if paid out of operating expenses after 
the plant is put into use by members of the regular staff, are not 
to be considered even in original cost. In other words, if a 
company builds a temporary bridge at the beginning, puts its 
road into operation, and subsequently replaces this bridge by an 
expensive steel structure designed by its regular staff of engineers, 
the engineering expense connected with this bridge is not to be 
considered as original cost because done by the regular salaried 
staff. In other words, this writer apparently believes that not 
even actual original cost is to be used. 

But, after all, much of this discussion is purely academic in 
view of the fact that in many cases, as, for instance, in the case 
of a railroad of considerable age, it is generally impossible to 
ascertain the original cost. So far as I know, no complete esti- 
mate of the original cost of any large railroad has yet been found, 
or the deficiency in earnings in lean years worked out. All 
valuations of such roads have been based on estimating the cost 
of reproduction. This can be done with comparative ease, as it 
involves simply making an inventory of the property and placing 
upon each item the cost of producing it at the present time. The 
original cost cannot be found because, in the first place, the 
records are in many cases destroyed or inaccessible, and, in the 
second place, because in the past accounts have not been kept 
in such a way as to distinguish between amounts properly charge- 
able to replacements and amounts properly chargeable to new 



178 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENABY 

construction. Wlien our railroads were built they were, as a 
rule, constructed cheaply, because the money was not available 
to construct them in any other way. As traffic grew and revenue 
increased, a wooden trestle, for instance, would be replaced by a 
steel bridge. The entire cost of the replacement would be charged 
to operating expenses. The banks of a cut, originally with a 
certain slope, would slide through the action of water, and addi- 
tional material would have to be taken out to make the slope of 
the banks less. This would be charged to operating expenses. 
As a matter of fact, the latter expense is properly chargeable to 
the original cost of producing the cut in its later condition, as 
the excess cost of the steel bridge over the cost of replacing the 
wooden trestle is also properly chargeable to original cost. It is 
probably impossible to disentangle these accounts at the present 
time in such a way as to ascertain the original cost of a large 
railroad. 

It may be urged that the accounts should have been kept in 
such a manner as to capitalize all expenses above those necessary 
to renew worn-out parts in the way in which they were originally 
built. On the other hand, there is something to be said in favor 
of the method of accounting which has been followed in this 
country. If all renewals beyond replacements in kind are 
charged to capital, a steady increase in capitalization and rates 
necessarily results. In this manner the large capital of some of 
the foreign roads has been produced. Our railroads, on the 
contrary, have preferred to keep their capital low by taking 
advantage of good years to make extensive replacements and 
improvements, charging them to operating expenses. It is urged, 
on the one hand, that since the revenue with which to pay for 
this replacement came from operating expenses and these 
revenues were contributed by the public in the form of rates, the 
public has contributed to the company a portion of its capital, 
and, therefore, that the company is not entitled at the present 
time to any return to it by the public in rates upon such capital ; 
but it should be remembered that the public had it in its power 
to regulate rates and to prevent such return of capital to a con- 
siderable extent, and that it did not do so. Further, the surplus 
might have been distributed to stockholders. The result of this 
development has been that this country has become possessed of 



SPECIAL LECTURES 179 

a system of railroads unequalled by those in any other country 
in the service that they give, and capitalized at a figure lower 
than in any other country, and carrying their traffic at rates 
lower, on the whole, than any other country. The history of the 
past, therefore, has not been entirely unfavorable to the interests 
of the public. With more stringent regulation, the history of the 
future, many believe, will not be so favorable. 

As a result of considering the controversy between the original 
cost method and the cost of reproduction method many dis- 
interested students have finally come to the same conclusion, 
which is this: Neither method of ascertaining value is in all 
cases, or perhaps in any case, the exclusive basis. Both should be 
considered, if ascertainable. The wisdom of the decision of the 
Supreme Court in the case of Smythe vs. Ames, so many times 
quoted, will, I think, become more apparent the more carefully 
this question is studied. It reads as follows : 

We hold, however, that the basis of all calculations as to the 
reasonableness of rates to be charged by a corporation maintain- 
ing a highway under legislative sanction must be the fair value of 
the property being used by it for the convenience of the public. 
And in order to ascertain that value the original cost of construc- 
tion, the amount expended in permanent improvements, the amount 
and market value of its bonds and stocks, the present as compared 
with the original cost of construction, the probable earning capacity 
of the property under particular rates prescribed by statute, and 
the sum required to meet operating expenses, are all matters for 
consideration and are to be given weight as may be just and right 
in each case. We do not say that there may not be other matters 
to be regarded in estimating the value of the property. What the 
company is entitled to ask is a fair return upon the value of that 
which it employs for the public convenience. 

Furthermore, many will thoroughly approve the words of 

your own eminent jurist. Justice H. M. Wright, who makes the 

following remarks with reference to the original cost method : 

Original cost is urged as a criterion of value by certain econ- 
omists and state officials. The theory is that the return in money 
which is the inducement and the reward for serving the community 
with water or gas, or other service, is justly to be determined on 
the basis of the amount of sacrifice on the part of the investor, 
and this amount of sacrifice is summarily identified with the original 
investment in existing property. The assumption neglects to take 
account of the fact that there would ordinarily be successive 
owners of the property or of shares in it, and at different purchase 
prices. Furthermore, the test proposed applies to property devoted 
to the public use, the socialistic basis for fixing value, while the 
property of all other persons in the community is valued in accord- 
ance with the non-socialistic basis of our economic structure with- 



180 VNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICEl^ TENABY 

out reference to its cost. Money, the measure of value, changes in 
purchasing power in obedience to economic laws. . . . Original cost 
is of course a test of controlling importance in the case of newly 
constructed or acquired property. It may be a valuable cheek upon 
the value of property of moderate age; but generally it will have 
no significance as regards property, say of forty or fifty years' 
elapsed life. 

I think that most unprejudiced students after considering 
these matters, will be apt to agree with Judge Wright and to 
reach substantially the following conclusions : 

In the case of a public utility constructed today and under 
public regulation from the beginning, the investor should be 
satisfied with a fair return, commensurate with the risk involved, 
upon the actual investment. If rates sufficiently high to produce 
such return are guaranteed by the public the investor must take 
the risk that the investment will be a losing proposition, and that 
when rates are fixed so as to produce a maximum return that 
maximum may be less than a fair return upon the investment. 
"What a fair return is will depend upon this risk, but he should 
be guaranteed that the public will not interfere with the imposi- 
tion of rates which, if they can be collected, will produce such 
fair return. 

In the case of utilities of comparatively recent construction, 
and especially if under public regulation from the beginning, the 
same basis would hold. In the case, however, of utilities which 
have been allowed to operate for many years without public 
regulation, a new start should now be made and a valuation fixed 
as a starting point, accounting methods and the issue of securi- 
ties to be subject to public approval in the future. The value 
to be fixed as a new starting point should be, as the courts have 
decided, not less than the fair present value of the properties and 
in the ascertainment of such fair present value, as Judge Wright 
so wisely says, the original cost will have no significance. Indeed, 
neither original cost nor reproduction cost will be the sole test, 
but we shall come back to the words of wisdom, so often quoted, 
in the case of Smythe vs. Ames. 

Another of the much discussed points regarding valuation 
may now be referred to, as it is of great importance, namely, the 
question whether depreciation should be deducted from the value 
now, whether found by the original cost method or the cost of 
reproduction method. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 181 

When an industrial plant or a public service plant is put into 
operation, many of the individual units immediately begin to 
depreciate in value and condition on account of use, wear, decay, 
and perhaps approaching obsolescence. The time will come when 
such units will have to be replaced. How shall this be provided 
for? At first sight it appears that the proper method would be 
to set aside each year out of earnings, the total amount of the 
accrued depreciation in that year, and to carry the sums so set 
aside in a depreciation or reserve fund, paying out of this fund 
each year for the renewals in kind which are necessary. This 
places the company in strong financial position and enables it to 
meet renewals when due. Such a fund, however, is a return of 
capital to the company by those who buy its product. The same 
result might be accomplished by building up a surplus, but in 
this case stockholders might demand a distribution of this surplus, 
whereas if the proper amount is held in a depreciation fund 
stockholders may not demand that this be distributed. 

Such a procedure is eminently desirable, and generally pos- 
sible, in the case of an industrial plant, for just two reasons : 
(1) that the industrial concern can charge any price that it 
pleases for its product; (2) that an industrial plant frequently 
finds itself in a position in which it is necessary to make very 
extensive renewals in a single year. Let us consider these reasons. 

1, An industrial plant is not subject, except perhaps in ex- 
ceptional times like the present, to any public regulation. It can 
charge what.it likes for its product. It is limited only by com- 
petition with other concerns making similar products, and it 
generally and properly aims to make the prices which it charges 
such as will produce a volume of sales that will result in the 
maximum net return. Whether it makes rails or razors, or drugs, 
or soap, or furniture, or refined oil, or any other industrial 
product, it is not limited by the public in regard to the prices 
which it can exact. It may earn 40, 50, or even 100 per cent of 
its capital stock in a single year. 

2. An industrial plant frequently finds it necessary to make 
large renewals in a single year. Improvements in machinery and 
methods of manufacture, the introduction of new apparatus and 
processes, and other circumstances, some of them unforeseen and 
unforeseeable, may at some time render it necessary to entirely 



182 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

reconstruct the plant in order to enable it to do business econom- 
ically and to meet competition. When such expenditures become 
necessary, if the company has not accumulated a surplus or a 
depreciation fund sufficient for the purpose it may find itself in 
a serious situation. It will either be obliged to continue its busi- 
ness without making the renewals which are necessary and which 
will result in economy, or it must get new capital for the purpose. 
It is, therefore, wise for it to accumulate a depreciation fund. It 
should make hay while the sun shines, and while it enjoys a good 
business it should provide for the inevitable future. 

Now when such a depreciation fund has been accumulated, 
what is it ? Clearly it is original capital which has been returned 
to the company by those who have bought its products in past 
years. It is amortization of the capital. The balance sheet shows 
this clearly. On the asset side stands the original cost. From this 
is deducted the depreciation, so that the cost is carried at a 
depreciated value. On the same side stands the depreciation 
fund, which should be equal to the deducted depreciation. On 
the liability side stands the original capital. When any renewal 
of a part of the plant is necessary the situation is this : the 
original investment in that part of the plant has not only earned 
for its owners a fair return during its life, but the original 
capital investment in it has also been returned to the owners by 
the public, and is now available by the company for a renewal of 
that element. 

A public service corporation, and particularly a railroad, 
differs radically from an industrial plant in regard to both of 
the elements which justify the accumulation of a depreciation 
fund. 

In the first place a railroad company is not justified in asking 
the public to return to it any portion of its original capital. It 
is under public regulation. Its rates are subject to being fixed 
by a public commission, and if they were not, public opinion 
would exert a corresponding pressure. If the public, through 
its regulating body, requires or allows the company to accumulate 
a depreciation fund, and permits it to charge rates sufficient for 
the purpose, it may be wise in certain particular cases for the 
company to set aside such a fund. In electric light plants, gas 
plants, to some extent in water works, where, as in industrial 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 183 

corporations, large renewals may become necessary in a single 
year, it may be desirable to accumulate such a fund, and in some 
instances the public authorities permit it, and perhaps require it. 

A railroad, however, is essentially different. It will never 
need renewal as a whole, or in any large part, because it consists 
of such an immense number of separate units. It will presently 
be shown, also, that in the case of a railroad the accumulation of 
such a fund is neither necessary nor desirable. 

What should a railroad company be allowed to obtain from 
the public in return for the commodity which it furnishes? (1) 
It should be enabled to earn its operating expenses, because it has 
to pay them out year by year, or perhaps week by week. (2) It 
should be allowed to earn its taxes, which are paid to the public. 
(3) It should be allowed to earn its fixed charges or the interest 
on its fixed capital obligations, because if it does not it may be 
obliged to go into the hands of a receiver, or to borrow money 
to pay interest, which would be bad financial policy, and could 
only be done at high rates if at all. (4) It must be allowed to 
earn enough to pay for renewals as they become necessary. 
Otherwise the property will run down and become less efficient as 
a servant of the public. (5) It should be allowed to earn a fair 
return to its owners on the capital stock. These then, are the 
earnings which a railroad should be allowed to make : operating 
expenses, taxes, fixed charges, maintenance and necessary re- 
newals, a fair return. Should it also be allowed or required to 
earn the amount of accrued depreciation and to carry this in a 
depreciation fund? 

A little consideration will show that this is neither necessary 
nor desirable, for the reason that a railroad lacks the second 
element which makes the accumulation of such a fund desirable 
in the case of an industrial corporation. No large part or element 
of a railroad will require renewal in any one year, because the 
multiplicity of its parts is so great. Annually accruing deprecia- 
tion and annual expenses for renewals tend to reach a condition 
of equilibrium in which one of these is equal to the other. By 
skillful management the departure from this condition of equili- 
brium may be made very small. If a large bridge is weak and 
needs renewal there are various methods of meeting the emerg- 
ency. The bridge may be strengthened, or temporarily sup- 



184 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

ported by placing pile bents beneath it and shortening the span. 
Many bridges needing renewal have been treated in this way, and 
carried for ten or fifteen years without renewal. If a large struc- 
ture requires renewal this year the renewal of a corresponding 
number of smaller structures may be postponed. 

To earn anything more than operating expenses, taxes, fixed 
charges, necessary maintenance and renewals, and a fair return 
means that the public is returning to the company its capital. 
The company should by skilled management endeavor to make 
renewals come due in such a way that they may be fairly uniform 
from year to year. If in any one year a large item of expense 
is to be met for renewals other items can be cut down or post- 
poned by temporary measures until subsequent years. If such 
renewals cannot be met from current earnings the company may 
borrow money or incur a floating debt for the purpose, which 
is retired as soon as possible even if rates have to be temporarily 
somewhat increased in order to do so. Such a plan provides for 
obsolescence. A new structure may be much better than the one 
which it replaces but it seems proper that future customers should 
bear the expense involved in securing the better facilities rather 
than to have the expense borne bj^^ the customers who had only 
enjoyed the benefit of the inferior facilities previously available. 
Such a plan puts the burden of paying upon those who enjoy the 
facilities which they pay for. 

Furthermore, it is easy to see that in the case of a railroad, 
with its great number and diversity of units, to build up a 
depreciation fund would not only be undesirable but would 
result in a useless fund. This is true in the case of any concern, 
whether an industrial concern or a public service corporation, in 
which the multiplicity of units is such that renewals in time come 
to be an approximately constant expense. 

The situation is best illustrated in the ease of the ties of a 
railroad, because they are the shortest-lived element, and the 
illustration is easier to grasp. Suppose that a railroad is 10,000 
miles long, with 25,000 ties to the mile. It has 25,000,000 ties. 
If these cost 60 cents apiece they are represented in the capital 
account by $15,000,000. If the average length of life of a tie is 
ten years, then, inasmuch as ties differ and are not all of the same 
quality when put into the railroad and inasmuch as the wear 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 185 

upon them differs according to the location and the traffic, they 
will, even if all are put in at the same time, wear out at different 
times. Some of them may last only five years, others may last 
twelve or fifteen, depending upon circumstances. Ultimately, 
when the condition of equilibrium is reached, there would be an 
annually accruing depreciation of ties of one-tenth of the capital 
represented, or $1,500,000 ; and during each year about one-tenth 
of all the ties will be renewed, at a cost of $1,500,000. The con- 
dition of equilibrium is reached when the depreciation of the ties 
is between 40 and 50 per cent and the depreciated value between 
50 and 60 per cent. If a considerable portion of the railroad is 
new the condition of equilibrium will not have been reached. Tie 
renewals will not equal annually accruing depreciation. Assume 
the depreciation to be 40 per cent and the depreciated value 60 
per cent. In this case the depreciation in the ties will be 40 per 
cent of $15,000,000 or $6,000,000, and this will be included in the 
total depreciation of the property. During the following year 
the annual accruing depreciation would be $1,500,000, and the tie 
renewals somewhat less, so that the fund, if it had been set aside, 
would be increased this year. The condition of equilibrium will 
be reached when the fund reaches 45 per cent of $15,000,000, or 
$6,750,000. After that time in any one year what is paid into 
the fund would be exactly balanced by what is taken out of it. 
The fund would represent capital for ties which has been returned 
to the company by the public. Of what use is it to accumulate 
this fund for the simple purpose of having it ? If the answer is 
made, let the fund now be used to meet cost of renewals without 
adding to the fund out of earnings, then, if this is done, the fund 
will gradually disappear. But what would be the justification 
for such a procedure? 

At this point another consideration comes in. In an industrial 
plant the concern not infrequently starts in with large earnings. 
If it is economically constructed and supplies a commodity that 
the public wants, the entire field is at once immediately opened 
to it. Earnings may be large from the beginning. A railroad 
company is radically different. It is generally built into new 
country, and in advance of a market for its product, namely, 
transportation. It builds its line into territory where the trans- 
portation facilities have been insufficient, and where the business 



186 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAB¥ 

must be developed. At the beginning, therefore, its earnings may 
be small, until the country becomes settled and its resources 
developed. This is particularly the case with our trans-conti- 
nental roads, like the Canadian Pacific, Canadian Northern, and 
the American roads. In early years the earnings may be so small 
as to produce for a long time no return to stockholders, who must 
have faith and wait for the development of the country before 
they get any dividend. In some instances the early returns may 
be so small that that company cannot pay its fixed charges, and 
is obliged to reorganize according to a plan which will cut down 
those fixed charges. Such has been the experience of many 
American railroads, as is well known. Now what would be the 
use of requiring a company under such circumstances, in the 
early days, to set aside a fund to provide for depreciation of ties, 
thereby burdening it still further. Is it not much better to allow 
it to develop its traffic as fast as it can, meeting necessary tie 
renewals as thej'^ become necessary from year to year, seeing that 
ultimately a condition of equilibrium will be reached, without 
any fund, in which accruing depreciation will be equal to annual 
expenses for renewals? 

Every other element of a railroad is in essentially the same 
condition that has been described with reference to ties. Bridges 
wear out, but not all at once, as there are great numbers of them. 
The same is true of rails, buildings, water tanks, and every other 
element of property which depreciates. 

The above seems clearly to show that the accumulation of a 
depreciation reserve in the case of a railroad is neither necessary 
nor desirable. As a matter of fact it is not required in the United 
States, except in the case of equipment, and this has only been 
required within a very few years. The Interstate Commerce 
Commission in all the years of its existence, from 1887, did not 
require the accumulation of a depreciation reserve, until a few 
years ago for equipment, and many railroad men believe that 
even this was unnecessary, because even equipment does not wear 
out all at once. Furthermore, it may be claimed that with refer- 
ence to other items than equipment public authorities in America 
do not permit an accumulation of a depreciation fund for the 
reason that although it is not prohibited, the public authorities 
have not in general allowed rates to be high enough to permit of 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 187- 

such a fund being accumulated. No American railroad accumu- 
lates a depreciation fund, so far as I am aware, for anything 
except equipment. 

If the public authorities permit or require a depreciation 
fund to be accumulated, and it is so accumulated and, therefore, 
represented in the assets and in the physical valuation, then it is 
proper to deduct depreciation from the value of the property new, 
the amount so deducted depending upon the accounting regula- 
tions with reference to the accumulation of the fund. Here is 
where accounting comes in. There are various methods of esti- 
mating depreciation, all based on an assumed life of the element 
of the property to be depreciated. If the ' ' straight line ' ' method 
is used, that is to say, if the depreciation is supposed to be 
uniform each year, and the fund is accumulated on this basis, it 
should be so figured in the valuation. If the "sinking fund" 
method is required, then this method should be figured in the 
valuation. 

The above consideration clearly demonstrates, it seems to me, 
the following propositions : 

1. In making a valuation of a public utility property, accrued 
depreciation should not be deducted from the value new, unless 
a depreciation fund has been accumulated, in which case the 
depreciation for the elements covered by said fund, computed in 
the same manner in which the fund has been computed, should 
be deducted. The fund will be among the assets, and the depre- 
ciation which it represents should properly be deducted from the 
value new. 

2. While in the case of some public utility properties, like gas 
and electric light plants, it may be wise in the public interest to 
permit, encourage, or even to require the company to accumulate 
a depreciation fund, permitting it, of course, to charge rates 
which will enable it to do so ; yet in the case of a railroad, with 
its great multiplicity of elements, the accumulation of a deprecia- 
tion fund in general is undesirable and unnecessary in the public 
interest, and results in a return by the public of a part of the 
capital to the company, to constitute a useless and permanent 
fund. 

The case is different where there is overdue or deferred de- 
preciation ; that is to say, where renewals which were necessary 



188 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

to maintain the property in good operating conditions have not 
heen made. The company when it accepts its franchise, accepts 
the obligation to maintain the property in serviceable working 
condition. It must do this out of earnings, without increase of 
capital unless improvements are made. If it neglects to make 
necessary renewals in kind, excessive or overdue depreciation 
results, and this it is proper to deduct from the value new in 
order to find the present value, but only this. This represents 
what a purchaser would have to pay if he were buying the prop- 
erty, in addition to what he pays for the property to the previous 
owners, in order to put it into good workable condition; and he 
should, therefore, pay that much less than what would be its 
present value if in good workable condition. 

If a railroad is properly maintained, with no overdue depre- 
ciation, it is just as valuable an operating concern as if it were 
new. The owner is under obligation to replace worn out parts 
in kind when they become worn out, without increase of the 
capital. Furthermore, the railroad as a whole never wears out if 
properly maintained. Its life is indefinite. If the accrued depre- 
ciation for individual items is added together it results in an 
accrued depreciation for the entire property. We have, therefore, 
let us say, ties on the average one-half worn out, because one- 
half of their life has elapsed, showing a present value of 50 per 
cent of the value known, and similarly for other elements. We 
have, then, the entire property showing a depreciation of perhaps 
15 per cent. All of these depreciations for individual elements 
are worked out by one method or another from life tables, that 
is to say, from tables based on the assumed life of the various 
elements; and by adding these together the result is a deprecia- 
tion in the value of the entire property as a whole. How can 
there be a depreciation based on the life of a property and the 
portion of it which has elapsed, if it has no determinable life, 
that is, if its life is indefinite? The property as a whole, if 
properly maintained, does not depreciate. A tie on a railroad may 
depreciate, but the ties of a railroad, if properly maintained, 
never depreciate. A tie has a life of ten years, therefore if it is 
five years old it has depreciated 50 per cent. The ties of a rail- 
road, if properly maintained, have an indefinite life. Based on 
this, therefore, they have no depreciation if five years of their life 



SPECIAL LECTUEES 189 

has elapsed. The property which is valued is a railroad, not a 
part of a railroad. 

Furthermore, it is clear that no depreciation should be de- 
ducted from the value new of a properly maintained railroad 
property when it is considered how that property in its depre- 
ciated condition could be reproduced. The only way to repro- 
duce it would be to reproduce it new, operate it, and get it into 
its present condition, in which case the cost of this process would 
be the cost of reproducing it new. It could not be reproduced 
with depreciated materials. If the value of a property is the cost 
of reproducing it in its present condition, then the value of a 
railroad property properly maintained is the cost of reproducing 
it new. 

The company is always subjected to the obligation of making 
replacements in kind out of earnings as they become necessary. 
If it cannot do this and is a distinctly losing venture then 
reorganization may be necessary, with reduction of its capital and 
fixed charges ; but so long as it has the credit to borrow money 
to make necessary renewals when they become due it should be 
allowed to do so, since it will have to pay the interest on this 
borrowed money as well as to make the renewals. 

I believe that opinion is beginning to change with reference 
to the propriety and fairness of deducting depreciation from 
value new. Members of the Massachusetts Railroad Commission 
severely criticized several years ago a report which the writer 
made in which he advocated making no such deduction, and it is, 
therefore, all the more interesting to find that the chairman of 
that Commission has recently made the following statement : 

In the matter of depreciation, so far as it has been a matter of 
discussion by the Public Service Commission of this State, in the 
various decisions which it has rendered, it has come before us in a 
double aspect. The problem which confronted the Commission in 
the first instance was to determine just what recognition should be 
given to accrued depreciation, in determining the fair value of the 
property upon which the company is entitled, under the law, to a 
fair return. The Commission was faced with that problem shortly 
after its organization, in the Middlesex and Boston rate case. The 
Commission in that ease began, for the first time in this State, to 
exercise supervisory rate-making powers. It was natural, therefore, 
that it should examine the precedents in Commission and court 
decisions, throughout the rest of the country, in determining the 
basis which it should use in determining fair value for rate-making 
purposes. 



190 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

Depreciating Investment 

We found that throughout the country at large, the theory which 
had received recognition, far and away beyond any other theory; 
that had almost become crystallized into a legal rule, was the rule 
that a return should be allowed only upon the value of the property, 
less depreciation. That is to say, if you had a property with a 
value new of $10,000,000 and if it was in the normal service con- 
dition of 75 per cent, the company would be entitled to a return on 
only seven millions and a half, although it might have ten millions 
of securities outstanding, which were issued under public super- 
vision in this State. 

The Commission did not believe that rule was sound or just to 
the men who had put their money into the properties. It did not 
believe, further, from an examination of the public utility field, 
that the application of any theory of that kind could be enforced 
without risking the practical bankruptcy of a large number of the 
street railway companies in this State. 

The consequence was that the Commission adopted the theory 
that if this money was honestly invested in the properties in the 
first instance, and that they were maintained with anything like a 
decent degree of maintenance, that the companies and the investors 
were not to be penalized, in the absence of mismanagement, for any 
depreciation of the property that had been brought about in the 
public service, unless it could be shown that the company had 
profited from that situation, rather than the car-riding public. 

The study of this subject, like the study of most subjects that 
are largely of an economic character, is interesting as a study 
of human nature. It discloses to us some of the virtues and many 
of the weaknesses and prejudices of humanity. If we are, our- 
selves, unprejudiced and open to conviction it perhaps makes us 
more tolerant and charitable toward those who differ from us in 
opinion, but it must convince us of the truth of the striking 
statement of Lecky, who says in one place : 

Strange veins of insanity and capacities for enthusiastic folly 
sometimes flaw the strongest brains, and the impetuous ebullitions 
of youth which impel some men in extravagances of vice impel 
other natures into equally wild extravagances of thought. 

and in another place : 

There is such a thing as an honest man with a dishonest mind. 
There are men who are wholly incapable of deliberate willful un- 
truthfulnes, but who have the habit of quibbling with their con- 
victions and by skillful casuistry persuading themselves that what 
they wish is right. 

At all events it should make us more careful and moderate 
in forming our own opinions and more tolerant of differences of 
opinion, if coming from men whom we personally respect, whose 
motives we do not question, and who express their criticisms and 
differences with courtesy and kindness rather than with malignity. 



SPECIAL LECTURES 191 

Finally, it seems to the speaker that there is one portion of 

the decision of the Supreme Court in the Knoxville case which 

has not been quoted or regarded so extensively as it deserves to 

be. It indirectly recognizes the fact that the property of the 

public service corporation is private property. It reads as follows : 

Our social system rests largely upon the sanctity of private 
property, and that State or community which seeks to invade it 
will soon discover the error in the disaster which follows. The 
slight gain to the consumer, which he would obtain from a reduc- 
tion in the rates charged by public service corporations, is as 
nothing compared with his share in the ruin which would be brought 
about by denying to private property its just reward, thus un- 
settling values and destroying confidence. 



192 UNIVEMSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICEJSTENAEY 



THE E. T. EAEL LECTUEES OF THE PACIFIC SCHOOL OF 

EELIGION 

For the Year 1918 

on The Civilization of Egypt and its Place in History 

Delivered at the First Congregational Church of Berkeley 

Fourth Lecture* 

THE EARLIEST INTERNATIONALISM 

James Henry Breasted, Ph.D., LL.D. 

Professor of Egyptology and Oriental History, Director of the 
Haskell Oriental Museum, University of Chicago 

The foreign relations of the Egyptians are earlier discernible 
than those of any other people. In the thirtieth century b.c. the 
Pharaoh Snefru dispatched a fleet of forty ships to bring cedar 
from the forests of Lebanon. This was two thousand years before 
Solomon procured his cedar there for the temple at Jerusalem. 
Egyptian salt water navigation, the earliest known in history, had 
begun well back of 3000 b.c. From the Pyramid age (about 3000 
to 2500 B.C.) we even have relief pictures of the Egyptian ships, 
which had then become a common sight in the eastern Mediter- 
ranean from Crete and the Aegean on the west and north to 
Phoenicia and the Nile Delta on the east and south. This leader- 
ship of Egyptian navigation, introducing the first craft propelled 
by sails, is traceable as far east as East Indian and Malayan 
waters, where native craft displaying unique peculiarities of 
ancient Egyptian origin are still in use at the present day. 

This early expansion of the Nile-dweller's world resulted 
in the transmission of the earliest civilization to southeastern 
Europe. The process continued on a larger scale in the Feudal 
age, after 2000 b.c. At the same time Egyptian knowledge of 
neighboring Asia was so increased that a remarkable romance 
of the age was staged in western Asia. It tells of the flight of 



* The other five lectures in this course are still unpublished. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 193 

an Egyptian fugitive, named Sinuhe, who found refuge in Syria, 
and lived a life of heroic adventure and enviable prosperity 
there — a life described with epic simplicity, affording us our 
earliest glimpses into pre-Hebrew conditions in Syria. Similarly 
Egyptian navigation of the Red Sea had brought the gates of 
the Indian Ocean into the purview of literature, and a pictur- 
esque tale of the time relates the voyage of an Egyptian sailor 
in this region, where this earliest Sindbad, as the sole survivor, 
was cast away on an enchanted island. There he gained fabulous 
wealth and returned home to tell the tale. Thus the life of men 
across far waters was beginning to play a part in the life of the 
Nile-dwellers, and the background of their foreign environment 
was greatly expanded. 

It was not until the Empire (1580 to 1150 B.C.) however, that 
this process went so far as to make Egypt feel itself a part of 
the larger world around it. The dominant influences had hitherto 
been those of an environment restricted to the limits of the 
lower Nile valley. These had gone as far as they could, when a 
career of imposing foreign expansion of national power enlarged 
the theatre of thought and action. This imperial expansion 
northward and southward, until the Pharaoh's power had united 
the contiguous regions of Asia and Africa into the first stable 
Empire in history, is the commanding fact in the history of the 
East in the sixteenth century B.C. 

"The consolidation of that power by Thutmose Ill's twenty 
years' campaigning in Asia is a stirring chapter of military im- 
perialism in which, for the first time in the East we can discern 
the skillfully organized and mobile forces of a great state, as 
they were brought to bear with incessant impact upon the nations 
of Western Asia, until the Egyptian supremacy was undisputed 
from the Greek Islands, the coasts of Asia Minor, and the high- 
lands of the Upper Euphrates on the north, to the Fourth 
Cataract of the Nile on the south. ' '* 

Egyptian conquest of land and sea had gained control of a 
strategic situation paralleled only by that of Constantinople. In 



* Quotation marks without indication of source designate the author 's 
History of Egypt, and his Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient 
Egypt. 



194 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

spite of Libyan rivalry Egypt had long been undisputed mistress 
of northeastern Africa, had now gained control of southwestern 
Asia, and was impregnably seated astride a grand inter-conti- 
nental highway linking Asia and Africa. But Suez is far more 
than an inter-continental highway. It has again been made by 
modern enterprise, what the Egyptian Pharoahs had already 
made it nearly four thousand years ago, an inter-oceanic high- 
way. It is, therefore, today, as it was under the Egyptian Em- 
pire, not only a link between two continents but also a link 
between two seas, making it a great inter-continental, inter- 
oceanic cross-roads. In strategic importance it surpasses even 
Constantinople. It will be seen that under the Empire Egypt 
had made this grand cross-roads her safe and unchallenged pos- 
session by erecting a deep buffer of vassal states on the Asiatic 
side, a precaution absolutely necessary to ensure its possession 
by any power entrenched in Egypt. It is all the more remark- 
able that we find England taking this obvious precaution only 
after her hold upon Egypt had been seriously threatened from 
Asia. 

Having thus gained a firm hold upon the contiguous portions 
of two continents, having developed a navy which ensured her 
unchallenged control of the seas on either side, and having long 
before linked those two seas together so that her war fleets 
could pass quickly from one to the other, Egypt had made her- 
self mistress of a commanding world. It was a situation pos- 
sessing a strategic power, economic, commercial, naval, and mili- 
tary, which enabled the Pharaohs to build up an imperial 
supremacy which lasted for several centuries. 

The creation of a dominant state like this resulted in a fabric 
of cosmopolitan, international life which the ancient world had 
never seen before. It was most tangibly discernible in Egypt 
itself, as the horizon of the Nile-dwellers rapidly expanded and 
the life of surrounding peoples began to interpenetrate with that 
of Egypt as never before. Visible results of Egypt's far-reach- 
ing foreign power began to appear. Engraved on the walls of 
the Karnak temple, the Egyptians of the imperial capital at 
Thebes began to see "long annals of the Pharaoh's victories in 
Asia, endless records of the plunder he had taken, with splendid 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 195 

reliefs picturing the rich portion which fell to the god of the 
Egyptian state." In successive lists the same walls bore the 
names of over three hundred and sixty Asiatic towns which had 
submitted to Thutmose III. "In the garden of Amon's temple, 
. . . grew strange plants of Syria-Palestine, while animals un- 
known to the hunter of the Nile valley wandered among trees 
equally unfamiliar. Envoys from the north and south were con- 
stantly appearing at Court. Phoenician galleys, such as the 
upper Nile never had seen before, delighted the eyes of the 
curious crowds at the docks of Thebes; and from these landed 
whole cargoes of the finest stuffs of Phoenicia, gold and silver 
vessels of magnificent workmanship, from the cunning hand of 
the Tyrian artificer or the workshops of distant Asia Minor, 
Cyprus, Crete and the Aegean Islands; exquisite furniture of 
carved ivory delicately wrought ebony, chariots mounted with 
gold and electrum, and bronze implements of war. ' ' In all these 
things the Egyptian could recognize products of a craftsmanship 
which had long ago been borrowed from his ancestors in the Nile 
valley. Besides all these things there were "fine horses for the 
Pharaoh 's stables and untold quantities of the best that the fields, 
gardens, vineyards, orchards and pastures of Asia produced. 
Under heavy guard emerged from these ships too, the annual 
tribute of gold and silver in large commercial rings, some of 
which weighed as much as twelve pounds each. . . . Winding 
through the streets, crowded with the wondering Theban multi- 
tude, the strange-tongued Asiatics in long procession bore their 
tribute to the Pharaoh 's treasury. ' ' We can still look upon these 
scenes as they have been perpetuated in gorgeous paintings on 
the chapel walls in the tombs of the Theban nobles of the Empire. 
"The amount of wealth which thus came into Egypt was enor- 
mous for those times, and on one occasion the treasury was able 
to weigh out some eight thousand nine hundred and forty-three 
pounds of gold-silver alloy. ' ' In the same way the Pharaoh was 
absorbing the wealth of inner Africa, the Sudan of today, 
through Nubia. Besides these resources great numbers of slaves 
from both Africa and Asia were pouring into Egypt. 

With the death of Thutmose III in the middle of the fifteenth 
century B.C. the first imperial age which the world had ever seen 



196 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

was at its full noontide. "Traditional limits disappeared, the 
currents of life no longer eddied within the landmarks of tiny 
kingdoms, but pulsed from end to end of a great Empire em- 
bracing many kingdoms and tongues from the upper Nile to the 
upper Euphrates and the Greek Islands. The wealth of Asiatic 
trade, circulating through the eastern Mediterranean, which 
once flowed down the Euphrates to Babylon, was thus diverted 
to the Nile Delta, centuries earlier united with the Red Sea by 
canal. All the world traded in the Delta markets." . . . The 
Nile from the Delta to the cataracts was alive, therefore, with 
the freight of all the surrounding world, which flowed into it 
from the Red Sea fleets and from long caravans passing back and 
forth through the Isthmus of Suez, the oldest inter-continental 
highway, equipped only within the last few months with a rail- 
way. 

Some of the effects of this new internationalism which arose 
in the Near East under Egyptian supremacy were discernible in 
impressive monumental and architectural forms. Of these none 
was more impressive than the transformation of Thebes, the new 
imperial capital. It had now become a worthy seat of empire, the 
first monumental city of antiquity. On either side of the mighty 
river, which itself formed a majestic central avenue, were ranged 
successive groups of gardens, villas, and imposing temple pre- 
cincts, which were connected with the river by splendid avenues 
of sculptured rams and sphinxes. The effect of the symmetrical 
monumental structure of the city as a whole was marvellously 
enhanced by the splendor of the individual temple groups, which 
must have been "imposing in the extreme. The brilliant hues of 
the polychrome architecture, with columns and gates overwrought 
in gold and floors overlaid with silver, the whole dominated by 
towering obelisks clothed in glittering metal, rising high above 
the rich green of the nodding palms and sumptuous tropical 
foliage which embowered the mass, — all this must have produced 
an impression both of gorgeous detail and overwhelming gran- 
deur, of which the sombre ruins of the same buildings, impressive 
as they are, offer little hint at the present day. ' ' 

The history of ancient architecture has yet to be written, but 
it is well to remember that there were at this time no great 



SPECIAL LECTURES 197 

monumental cities anywhere else in the early world. The con- 
temporary cities of Asia were but dingy groups of sun-dried brick 
dwellings, with at most a Babylonian temple tower rising in their 
midst; while the castles of Tirjms and Mycenae, the palace of 
Phaestos in Crete, or the burial circles at Stonehenge, marked 
the beginnings of architecture in stone in the European world. 
The architectural glories of Periclean Athens were still one 
thousand years in the future. Nowhere was there a monumental 
city on an impressive scale when the Theban architects of the 
Empire began their work. Whence came the imposing concep- 
tions of which they were the authors? These architects had no 
predecessors in the task which had been set them, and I think we 
can only conclude that their architecture was a product of ex- 
panding vision quickened by the stimulus of Egypt's imperial 
leadership. "As at Athens in the days of her glory, the Egyptian 
Empire was fortunate in the possession of men of sensitive and 
creative mind, upon whose quick imagination her greatness had 
profoundly wrought, until they were able to embody her external 
manifestations in forms of beauty, dignity and splendor." 

The influence of international leadership on architecture, thus 
tangibly discernible in monumental terms, may serve to suggest 
to us its broadening effect in every direction. Thrown for the 
first time into a larger arena, the men of Egypt, like ourselves at 
the present crisis in our own history, were suddenly confronted 
by a more spacious outlook and were obliged to think in larger 
terms. In religion the result was a revolution which shook the 
old Egyptian traditions to the foundations. In the Pyramid age 
the Sun-god was conceived as a Pharaoh whose kingdom was 
Egypt. The state had long since made its impressions on religion, 
but that state had hitherto been a kingdom confined to the lower 
Nile valley. As that kingdom had long since found expression 
in religion, so now the empire must inevitably find similar 
expression. 

It had semed natural to call the god "king." The Pharaoh 
had thus become a kind of vehicle through which the thought of 
the Egyptians transferred sovereign qualities to the Sun-god, 
who became for them a kind of glorified and magnified Pharaoh. 
Larger visions of power were now dawning upon the minds of 



198 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

the Egyptians of the Empire as they contemplated their rulers. 
Thutmose III was the first personality of universal aspect, the 
first world-hero. As such he made a profound impression on his 
age. The idea of sovereign power, world-wide in scope, was thus 
visibly and tangibly bodied forth in his career, and the Egyptian 
caught it thus expressed rather than in far-reaching commercial 
connections or in the wide supremacy of natural law. It was 
universalism expressed in terms of imperial power which first 
caught the imagination of the thinking men of the Empire and 
disclosed to them the universal sweep of the Sun-god's power as 
a physical fact. Monotheism was but imperialism in religion. 

Scattered phrases found here and there in the inscriptions 
of the Empire suggest these influences from the very first and are 
like a momentary breath from a larger world. After the Empire 
is a century and a half old, from the beginning of the Fourteenth 
Century onward such influences envelop the life of Egypt in a 
constant atmosphere of universalism. The great individualist 
Amenhotep IV, who succeeded his father about 1375 B.C., was 
fascinated by the larger outlook, and it appealed to him chiefly 
in its religious aspects, though he was deeply interested in the 
expansion and emancipation of all of man's modes of self-expres- 
sion, especially in art. 

He devoted himself with absorbing zeal to the new solar 
universalism. In order to free himself from the compromising 
traditions of the old solar theology, he gave the Sun-god a new 
name, Aton, which had formerly designated the physical disk of 
the sun. He banished the immemorial symbols of the traditional 
Sun-god, and devised a new one which would be understood at 
once by all men and therefore would be of wider appeal. The 
new symbol depicted the sun as a disk from which diverging 
beams radiated earthward, each ray terminating in a human 
hand. It was a masterly symbol, suggesting a power issuing from 
its celestial source, and putting its controlling hand upon the 
world and the affairs of men. . . . Such a symbol was suited to 
be understood throughout the whole international world which 
the Pharaoh controlled." The king's genius in creating such a 
symbol will be best understood as we consider the fact that 
modern internationalism has no such symbol; the League of 
Nations has no flag. 



SPECIAL LECTURES 199 

With world-wide reach the new god extended his hands over 
all peoples, and the young king upon whose vision such a god had 
dawned was soon involved in the bitterest enmities with the 
entrenched priesthoods of the old gods, especially that of Amon 
at Thebes. His own name Amenhotep, meaning "Amon rests," 
the king changed to Ikhnaton, signifying ' ' Aton rests. ' ' Every- 
where, on all the great monuments throughout the land the name 
of Amon was expunged, although this involved the name of the 
king's own father, Amenhotep. Yawning holes appeared on 
stately buildings and massive monuments where once the name 
of the king 's father had stood. Even the word ' ' gods, ' ' the plural 
of the common noun, wherever it appeared on temple and tomb 
walls, was hacked out. Then, finding his life at Thebes among 
unfinished temples of the old gods and the disfigured walls of 
their ancient sanctuaries, overshadowed by oldtime associations 
which could not be evaded, this young revolutionary forsook the 
magnificent capital of his fathers, and built another residence 
city as a new home for his government and his new god. It is 
now commonly known as Tell el-Amarna. 

Weathered heaps of rubbish now stretch far over the plain 
where once the new city arose. Sweeping in a wide semicircle 
from the east to the north and south, the cliffs that encompass 
the plain still contain the tombs of the grandees who followed 
this extraordinary man to Amarna. Let me quote from the 
hymns to the new god, which were engraved on the walls of 
these tombs: 

How manifold are thy works! 

They are hidden from before (us), 

O sole God, whose powers no other possesseth. 

The foreign lands, Syria and Ethiopia, 

The land of Egypt; 

Thou settest every man into his place. 

Thou suppliest their necessities. 

Every one has his possessions. 

And his days are reckoned. 

The tongues are divers in speech. 

Their forms likewise and their skins are distinguished; 

For thou makest different the strangers. 



200 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

All cattle rest upon their pasturage, 

The trees and the plants flourish, 

The birds flutter in their marshes. 

Their wings uplifted in adoration to thee. 

All the sheep dance upon their feet. 

All winged things fly, 

They live when thou hast shone upon them. 

The barques sail up-stream and down-stream alike. 
Every highway is open because thou dawnest. 
The fish in the river leap up before thee, 
Thy rays are in the midst of the great deep. 

When the fledgling in the egg chirps in the shell. 
Thou givest him breath therein to preserve him alive. 

It is of course impossible to present all the evidence here, 
but perhaps these fragments of one of the Amarna hymns are 
sufficient to make it clear that Ikhnaton's endeavor was to pro- 
ject an international religion, a world religion, and by it to dis- 
place the nationalism of the existing religions which had gone on 
for twenty centuries. 

Here, then, was the earliest internationalism, expressing itself 
in religion as this extraordinary young idealist, by the power of 
his imperial station, endeavored to hold up the same god for all 
men. He recognizes their differences in speech and in the hue 
of their skins, but in spite of all these wide differences, for the 
first time in human history a man of universal outlook calls upon 
all mankind to recognize one maker and ruler as their father 
and god. 

In view of our present situation I cannot but call attention to 
the kindly and paternal solicitude of Ikhnaton 's god for all races 
of men, and even for the least of his creatures. "Thou art the 
father and the mother of all that thou hast made," says the 
young king to his God. It is a thought which anticipates much 
of the later development in religion even down to our own time. 
The picture of the lily-grown marshes, where, as he says in 
another hymn, the flowers are "drunken" in the intoxicating 
radiance of the Sun, where the birds unfold their wings and lift 
them "in adoration of the living Aton," where the cattle dance 
with delight in the sunshine, and the fish in the river beyond 
leap up to greet the light, the universal light whose beams are 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 201 

even "in the midst of the great deep;" the consciousness that 
this god of all creatures sustains and nourishes all men of what- 
ever race or color ; all this discloses a discernment of the presence 
of god in nature and of his fatherly goodness toward all men 
alike such as we find a thousand years later in the Hebrew 
Psalms, and still later in our own poets of nature since Words- 
worth. 

Ikhnaton had annihilated the old gods and exalted a sole god 
in their place; but he had failed to understand that he could 
not expunge the old gods from the habits, customs, and daily life 
of the people themselves as he had expunged the names of those 
gods from the monuments. Unlike a monument, a social fabric 
is powerfully dynamic, and cannot be fashioned like potter's 
clay. Hence it was in a whole land darkened by clouds of 
smouldering discontent that this marvellous young king and his 
group of followers had set up their tabernacle to the daily light, 
in serene unconsciousness of the fatal darkness that enveloped all 
around and grew daily darker and more threatening. The fair 
city of the Amarna plain was but a fatuous island of the blest in 
the midst of a sea of discontent ; a vision, a dream born in a mind 
fatally forgetful that the past cannot be annihilated. Ikhnaton, 
the first great individualist of history, was overwhelmed by the 
growing tide of tradition. He perished, and the first great con- 
structive movement toward a beneficient internationalism per- 
ished with him. But the monuments of his age and his reign 
have furnished invaluable revelations of the course of imperial 
power as modified by the strategic geography of the Near East. 

When his city at Amarna fell into ruin and the royal offices 
around his palace likewise collapsed, the falling walls of the room 
which had served as his foreign office covered a large portion of 
its letter files. Fortunately for us some of this correspondence 
consisted of clay tablets bearing cuneiform writing, and over 
three hundred letters from this earliest surviving foreign office 
file have thus been preserved. In publishing this international 
correspondence the modern orientalists have set a precedent 
which has since been followed by the Bolsheviki of Petrograd 
with very disquieting results, because the writers of the Petrograd 
documents had not been dead for thirty-three hundred years. 



202 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

In these Amarna Letters, as we call them, written in the first 
half of the fourteenth century B.C., a scene of world politics un- 
known before in history is unfolded before us. 

"From the Pharaoh's court as the centre radiates a host of 
lines of communication with all the great peoples of the age . . . 
giving us a glimpse across the kingdoms of hither Asia as one 
might see them on a stage, each king playing his part before the 
great throne of the Pharaoh. ' ' Here are the kings of Babylonia, 
Assyria, Mitanni, Cyprus, Asia Minor, Phoenicia, and Syria- 
Palestine, all plotting against each other, and all seeking the 
favor of the all powerful Egyptian overlord. Babylonia and 
Mitanni have sent princesses to become the wives of the Pharaoh, 
and the Babylonian ruler even ventures to ask for a similar dis- 
tinction for himself, the gift of a princess from the palace of 
Egypt as his wife. If the Pharaoh refuses, says the Babylonian, 
send somebody anyway, adding with sound statesmanship, "Who 
shall say that she is not a king's daughter?" 

The leading facts in the international situation disclosed by 
this extraordinary body of correspondence form a revelation 
without parallel in the history of research in the ancient world. 
The relations between these ancient peoples were already the well 
recognized result of long established intercourse, regulated by 
respected precedent. "So complete was the understanding be- 
tween Egypt and Cyprus that even the extradition of the prop- 
erty of a citizen of Cyprus who had died in Egypt was regarded 
by the two kings as a matter of course, and a messenger was sent 
to Egypt to receive the property and bring it back to Cyprus for 
delivery to the wife and son of the deceased. ' ' 

These letters reveal to us not only the relations of Egypt's 
vassal states, but also the situation of the leading states grouped 
about Egypt's Asiatic Empire, especially Babylonia, Assyria, 
and the Hittites. Against these outsiders the buffer of vassal states 
which Egypt had built up iu contiguous Asia was supposed to 
make her safe, but one of the most important disclosures of these 
letters is the gradual absorption of the whole northern end of 
Egypt's vassal bulwark in Asia by a great influx of Hittites from 
Asia Minor. It is exceedingly instructive for understanding 
either the ancient or the modern international situation in this 



SPECIAL LECTURES 203 

region to examine the strategic position of an army operating on 
the Asiatic side of Suez, England's operations in this region 
during the World War have been but a repetition of a military 
drama enacted over and over again since the sixteenth century 
B.C. I might read the records still preserved on the walls of the 
Karnak temple at Egyptian Thebes, and if I were only to sub- 
stitute the name of General Allenby for that of Thutmose III, 
you would almost imagine I was reading the dispatches of the 
British commander to London during his cam.paign in Palestine. 

Egypt is and always has been protected from any invasion 
from the African side because her rear is flanked in all directions 
by the Sahara, and any intruders endeavoring to enter by de- 
scending the river are stopped by the cataracts. Only once in 
her history has Egypt suffered a serious invasion from her rear 
in Africa. The same desert which protects Egypt in Africa 
sweeps far over into Asia, enfolds Egypt also on the Asiatic 
side, including the Isthmus of Suez, and throws a hundred miles 
of desert between the Nile Delta and southern Palestine. Inci- 
dentally it was this hundred miles of desert which prevented the 
Turks from making an effective assault on the canal, and it was 
in this region that the army of Sennacherib suffered destruction. 
The British have now solved it by building a railway across it. 

It is furthermore of fundamental importance to observe that 
this Arabian desert then extends far northward merging with 
what is commonly called the Syrian Desert, and is thus flung out 
like a far-reaching bulwark almost entirely across the region of 
Asia neighboring on Egypt, and absolutely shutting off all 
approach to Egypt from any quarter in Asia, except along the 
eastern Mediterranean shore. An army advancing upon Egypt 
from Asia finds the desert on the one hand and the eastern shores 
of the Mediterranean on the other ; and it marches southward for 
over four hundred miles down a relatively narrow cultivable 
fringe between the desert and the sea. This contracted avenue 
between sea and desert is strategically a four hundred mile pro- 
longation of the Isthmus of Suez northward. Together with the 
Isthmus it forms a link like the handle of a dumb-bell between 
Asia and Africa, — a corridor nearly five hundred miles long. In 
this corridor Palestine is at the south, while Syria occupies its 
northern portion. Every army entering Egypt must traverse 



204 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

almost the entire length of this narrow five hundred mile corridor 
connecting the great communities of Asia with Egypt. Let it be 
noticed that we have said communities rather than Asia in gen- 
eral ; for the great communities are not along the corridor, where 
there is not sufficient space for the development of powerful 
states. These states were always grouped outside the north end 
of the corridor, on its east and north and west; on its e£ist 
especially Assyria and Babylonia and on its northwest the 
Hittites in Asia Minor. 

Where then was the bridge head in Asia giving access to 
Africa and Egypt? It was and still is decidedly not at the 
Asiatic end of the Isthmus of Suez. It is four hundred miles 
farther north at the north end of the corridor, that is at Alex- 
andretta, the northeast corner of the Mediterranean. 

This shift of the bridge head so far north throws it directly 
under the gates of the westernmost bastion of Asia. On the 
north side of the Mediterranean Asia throws forward a great 
bastion, like a vast fortress salient, frowning down upon Europe 
and commanding Constantinople and the adjacent shores of 
Greece and the Balkan world. This vast peninsula of Asia 
Minor is a tableland from three to four hundred miles wide and 
six hundred and fifty to seven hundred miles long, being about as 
large as the state of Texas. It is thrust like a wedge far west- 
ward between Europe on the north and Africa on the south ; but 
it is separated from Europe on the north by the Black Sea and 
from Africa on the south by the Mediterranean. Behind it, 
that is, on the east, is a mountainous hinterland merging on the 
southeast into the alluvial plain of Babylonia. 

This great fortress bastion of western Asia conunands the 
hinterland of Babylonia and the bridge head leading to Egypt. 
Let us note that the bridge head is right under the southeastern 
gates of our fortress bastion. Let it be noted also that no aggres- 
sive military power has ever held this great western bastion of 
Asia without pouring through the corridor just described and 
thus sweeping around the eastern end of the Mediterranean into 
Egypt. The Persian Cyrus saw very clearly that he must possess 
Asia Minor before he could advance with safety upon Babylon 
or Egypt. It was the possession of this western bastion which 
enabled the Persians not only to command the Greek world in 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 205 

neighboring Europe, but also to capture the bridge head and 
advance into Egypt. Alexander the Great saw this and dispos- 
sessed the Persians first of their western salient and then fought 
his crucial battle at the bridge head itself on the shores of the 
gulf of Alexandretta, anciently called Issus. Would that our 
valiant English allies had adopted Alexander 's plan of campaign 
in this particular. The Romans likewise having gained a foot- 
holdT in Asia Minor swept around the Mediterranean into Egypt, 
and the Turks came in the same way. Thus the great bastion of 
western Asia has served as the stronghold dominating the eastern 
Mediterranean and furnishing the base which has supported 
Persian, Macedonian, Roman, and Turk in the conquest of Egypt 
and Babylonia. Its strategic significance, demonstrated by the 
part it has played in history, and obvious to any military student 
of the region even if he lacked all knowledge of its history, was 
discerned from the beginning by the military masters of Ger- 
many. Had they been effectively blocked in this region the 
European war would have ended before the overthrow of the Czar 
of Russia. 

The fundamental fact of importance for our further discus- 
sion is, then, that the bridge head in Asia is directly under the 
southeastern gates of Asia Minor and that this great western 
bastion of Asia thus commands the approach to Egypt from Asia. 
At the beginning of the war the Turks held the whole and later 
the northern two-thirds of the corridor ; that is, they occupied not 
only the bridge head, but also the whole and later half or more 
of the bridge itself. 

In a similar situation the ablest of the Egyptian commanders, 
Thutmose III, was the first great military strategist to discern 
that while the desert completely protected the corridor or bridge 
from all attack on its east side, the sea gave access to it for a large 
part of its length on its west side. Having failed to gain the 
bridge in frontal operations by land he perfected his command of 
the sea, and then sailing up the Syrian coast parallel with the 
bridge he landed his forces along its northern half and flanked 
all the enemy 's positions south of his landing. By landing at the 
northeastern corner of the Mediterranean, directly under the 
gates of the Asia Minor bastion, the entire bridge between Asia 
and Africa is gained at a single stroke. England too commands the 



206 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

sea, and to those familiar with the military and naval history of 
this region it will always remain an unsolved enigma why her 
plan of campaign so completely ignored the very decisive experi- 
ence of ancient commanders in this region. 

To sum up, the Asia Minor bastion commands both Egypt and 
Babylonia behind it, and Egypt's only safety is to hold the entire 
five hundred mile bridge which connects that bastion with Africa. 
Today if England is to maintain her oriental line of communi- 
cations through Suez she must possess not only Egypt on one 
side of Suez but on the other side the entire five hundred mile 
bridge right up to the southeastern gates of the Asia Minor 
bastion. The teachings of a long experience and the inexorable 
dictates of the strategic situation will be fatally disregarded if 
any other solution of the problem is adopted, although the desired 
end might possibly be secured by a protectorate in the north 
maintained by some assured friend or ally of the British Empire. 
If these references to the present situation in this region have 
seemed a digression, let me remind you again that the present 
situation is simply a repetition of that which we are now to 
resume. The founders of the Egyptian Empire had taken pos- 
session of the bridge for five hundred miles and at its north end 
they had protected the bridge head by conquering the i mm ediate 
region as far as the Euphrates and the Taurus. In the midst of 
the convulsion which was shaking all Egypt as a result of the 
religious revolution of Ikhnaton, that is to say, at a moment when 
Egyptian power was seriously paralyzed, the forces of a Hittite 
Empire which had slowly developed in Asia Minor poured out 
of the southeastern gates and took possession not only of the 
bridge head just outside their gates but also of about half of the 
bridge itself. They thus occupied a position much like that of 
the Turks before Allenby's last success. The northern half of 
Egypt's Asiatic Empire had been lopped away, and the Hittites 
held a dominating position, which has been interestingly illus- 
trated by a remarkable letter only recently discovered. It is a 
proposal of marriage sent to the Hittite court in Asia Minor by the 
widow of one of Ikhnaton 's ephemeral successors in Egypt. The 
widowed Egyptian princess was evidently convinced that if she 
could secure a Hittite prince as her husband she could with his 



SPECIAL LECTUEES 207 

help maintain herself and set up a new dynasty in distracted 
Egypt* 

It was a political move on the international chessboard which 
was very common in later Europe especially in the Feudal age, 
but we had not anticipated its appearance in the Near Orient in 
the fourteenth century B.C. The move failed and meantime the 
southern half of the bridge was absorbed by a migration of 
desert nomads which brought the Hebrews into Palestine. Hostile 
Asiatic powers then held the entire bridge and were separated 
from Egypt only by the hundred miles of desert lying between 
Egypt and Palestine ; that is, things were in exactly the situation 
of the British in Egypt at the opening of the great war, when 
the Turks attacked the canal. At this dangerous crisis Egypt and 
a portion of her Empire were saved by the wars of Seti I and 
Rameses II for a generation before and after 1300 B.C. 

The international situation then resolved itself into two rival- 
ries: one in the east, in the hinterland between Assyria on the 
north and Babylonia on the south ; the other in the west, between 
the Pharaohs and the Hittites. This war raged up and down the 
corridor as Seti I and Ramses II endeavored to thrust back the 
Hittites into their western Asiatic bastion, just as the English 
did with the Turks. By following the strategy of Thutmose III 
and advancing along the bridge by sea, Ramses II almost suc- 
ceeded in recovering the bridge head, and at one stage he was 
fighting the Hittites under the shadow of their own mountains; 
but he was unable to hold the bridge head permanently. 

Meanwhile the Hittite king was watching the progress of the 
other rivalry with some apprehension, as the rising Assyrian 
kingdom slowly expanded westward, and in 1300 B.C. for the 
first time in many centuries, an Assyrian king crossed to the west 
side of the Euphrates, in very uncomfortable proximity to the 
eastern frontier of the Hittites. The Hittite king therefore 
hastened to make peace with his Egyptian rival, in order to be 
free to devote his attention to the Asiatic situation. Ramses II 
was only too glad to accept the peace proffered by his formidable 
Hittite adversary, Khetasar, and the result was a treaty both of 
peace and alliance between the two powers so long at war. 

* See Hrozny, Mitt, der Beuischen Orient. Gesell., No. 56, Dec. 1915, and 
King; Jour, of Egyptian Arch., TV, 1917, p. 193. 



208 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

Two envoys of the Hittite king Khetasar arrived in Egypt, 
bringing with them the completed treaty engraved on a silver 
tablet. It was adorned with the figures of Khetasar and his 
queen, each protectingly embraced by a great god or goddess of 
the Hittites, accompanied by the seal of the god. It was from 
this original on the silver tablet that the sculptors of Eamses II 
copied the document on the temple wall, at the same time adding 
a full description of the adornments just mentioned. The valu- 
able silver original has, of course, long ago perished. But one of 
the copies on the walls of the temple of Ramses II at Karnak 
may still be read, the earliest international treaty extant. 

It is headed by a caption giving the genealogy of each of the 
two contracting sovereigns for two generations, which reads as 
follows : 

"The treaty which the great chief of Kheta [the Hittite 
nation] , Khetasar the valiant ; the son of Merasar, the great chief 
of Kheta the valiant ; the grandson of Seplel, the great chief of 
Kheta the valiant, made, upon a silver tablet for Ramses II, the 
great ruler of Egypt, the valiant; the son of Seti I, the great 
ruler of Egypt, the valiant ; the grandson of Ramses I, the great 
ruler of Egypt, the valiant. The good treaty of peace and broth- 
erhood, setting peace [between them] forever." 

The articles of the treaty, seventeen in number, then follow. 
The first article merely recalls the former relations between the 
two states, formerly at peace but later at war. Thereupon in 
varied form but with constant repetition the second article in- 
sistently reiterates the establishment of peace between the two 
sovereigns. It reads: 

"Behold then, Khetasar, the great chief of Kheta, is in treaty 
relation with Ramses II, the great ruler of Egypt, beginning with 
this day, in order to bring about good peace and good brother- 
hood between us forever, while he is in brotherhood with me, he 
is in peace with me ; and I am in brotherhood with him, and I am 
in peace with him forever. Since Metella, the great chief of 
Kheta, my brother, succumbed to his fate, and Khetasar sat as 
great chief of Kheta upon the throne of his father, behold, I am 
together with Ramses II, the great ruler of Egypt, and he is 
[with me in] our peace and brotherhood. It is better than the 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 209 

former peace and brotherhood which were in the land. Behold, 
I, even the great chief of Kheta, am with Ramses II, the great 
ruler of Egypt, in good peace and brotherhood. The children of 
the children of the great chief of Kheta shall be in brotherhood 
and peace with the children of the children of Eamses II, the 
great ruler of Egypt, being in our relations of brotherhood and 
our relations [of peace], that the [land of Egypt] may be with 
the land of Kheta in peace and brotherhood like ourselves for- 
ever. ' ' 

The impression of seriousness and sincerity is greatly height- 
ened by the excessive repetitiousness of the article, but the most 
interesting item in it, is the effort to bind all future generations 
to keep this peace unbroken. It is to be hoped that the coming 
peace of 1920 a.d, may be as successful as this earliest preserved 
compact of 1271 B.C. 

After an article in which each ruler completely renounces all 
purposes of future conquest against the other, they reaffirm two 
older treaties between the two countries, going back several 
generations. Thereupon four articles arrange a defensive and 
protective alliance between the two sovereigns, which obligates 
each to send military assistance to the other in case of need. Four 
articles are then devoted to arranging for the extradition of 
political fugitives and of emigrants from both countries. Here 
the document originally closed with a long article calling upon a 
thousand divinities of Kheta, male. and female, and a thousand 
of Egypt, male and female, to witness the compact ; followed by 
imprecations on the violator and blessings on the observer of the 
treaty. 

Two remarkable articles, appended as codicils and clearly an 
afterthought, provide for the humane treatment of extradited 
persons. These now form the conclusion of this extraordinary 
state document of over three thousand years ago, whereby two 
great sovereigns, representing millions of men, pledged them- 
selves to mutual obligations of fairness and right, which there is 
every indication they kept with a loyalty singularly lacking in 
international dealings during the last five years. 

Relations of cordial friendship betwen the two western rivals, 
Egypt and Kheta (the Hittites), then developed. Far up in 



210 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

Nubia, just outside the vast cliff temple of Abu Simbel, where 
the colossal figures of Ramses II look out in solitary grandeur 
across the purple river to greet the rising sun, the Pharaoh's 
father, — there, cut in the cliffs beside the temple front is an 
enormous stela or tablet, containing an inscription of formidable 
length. Forty horizontal lines each eight feet long, making a 
total of 320 linear feet of inscription, although they are badly 
"weathered, still tell the story of how the Hittite king, heading 
a great escort of horse and foot, came far across the mountains 
and valleys of Asia Minor and Syria that he might stand before 
the Pharaoh 's palace and present the princess his daughter as the 
wife of Ramses II — a report of a wedding in high life 320 feet 
long ! There is picturesque description of how the troops of both 
nations, who once faced each other in deadly combat, now mingle 
in friendship at the gorgeous wedding feast which followed. 
Above the great inscription a relief panel depicts the Pharaoh 
enthroned in state, while before him approaches the Hittite 
beauty led by her royal father. 

This great document, relief and inscription, has received very 
scanty attention. Only fragments have been published, and while 
the University of Chicago Expedition was engaged upon an 
epigraphic survey of the Nubian temples, including, of course, 
Abu Simbel, I gave special attention to this account of the in- 
ternational romance. I had been sitting for many days on the 
scaffolding which we raised before the monument, painfully 
gathering from the weathered face of the inscribed stone a 
steadily growing fund of facts and picturesque detail in this 
romantic international episode, as I followed the Asiatic princess 
setting out upon her long journey from the Hittite capital nearly 
two thousand miles away, across the eastern end of the Mediter- 
ranean. 

While I was so engaged upon the Egyptian end of these 
Egypto-Hittite relations the German orientalist Hugo Winckler 
had been excavating at the Asiatic end of the negotiations nearly 
two thousand miles away at the Hittite capital called Kheta, a 
place now bearing the Turkish name of Boghaz-koi. There 
"Winckler in a casual preliminary walk across the ruins had 
kicked up with his boot heel the clay tablet letters and records 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 211 

forming the official archives of Khetasar, who had made the 
treaty of peace which we have summarized with Ramses II. 
Among the first things which turned up in the midst of these 
Hittite archives were Khetasar 's preliminary drafts of the 
articles of the treaty, which must have been long discussed 
between the two governments before the finished treaty was ready 
to be engraved upon the silver tablet which Khetasar sent to 
Egypt. 

But this was not all for among the Hittite archives there 
came to light also a letter, likewise on a clay tablet, written imme- 
diately on conclusion of the treaty by the queen of Ramses II to 
the Hittite queen, expressing the Egyptian queen's delight that 
there was now peace between the two nations so long hostile. 
Poor lady! Her delight would have been much tempered could 
she have foreseen the outcome of that peace, as we have found it 
recorded on the great temple outside of Abu Simbel temple. 
From my scaffolding before that temple I could see her stand- 
ing, sculptured in monumental serenity beside her husband's 
throne, and, as the official queen, quite properly unaware of the 
existence of the Asiatic charmer who had issued from the Hittite 
palace to beguile the Pharaoh as one of the results of that very 
peace over which her expressions of satisfaction still lay in the 
far off Hittite palace from which her Asiatic rival had emerged 
to be perpetuated on the Abu Simbel tablet. There on the 
Nubian Nile they still stand today: above in lofty imperturba- 
bility the unmoved figure of the Egyptian queen beside the 
colossal form of her sovereign lord, whose deliverance from the 
Hittite war brought her such joy, and at their feet beside the 
temple front, the story of how that peace culminated in the 
coming of the Hittite princess to be the Pharaoh's favorite. 

The archives of the Hittite capital although they have as yet 
hardly been catalogued, furnish the last and unexpectedly im- 
portant developments in this age of earliest internationalism. 
We must recall that the international situation, as we have 
already indicated, might be summarized as two rivalries, that 
between Egypt and the Hittites in the west, and in the east the 
long struggle between Assyria and Babylonia. Khetasar the 
Hittite observed with much anxiety that the balance of power 
between the two rivals in the east was being upset by the strong 



212 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

and aggressive policy of Assyria, and when the Assyrians under 
Shalmaneser I crossed to the west side of the Euphrates, Assyrian 
power came directly into contact with the Hittites and seriously 
menaced them. Hence the treaty with Eamses II and then a 
union of the Hittite and Egyptian royal houses by marriage. 

But the statesmanship of an able Hittite sovereign in the 
thirteenth century B.C. did not stop with this. Freed from all 
anxiety regarding Egypt, Khetasar devoted himself to relieving 
his eastern frontiers of Assyrian pressure. He cultivated the 
closest relations with Assyria's rival Babylon, as we discover on 
reading one of his letters to the young Babylonian king. For- 
tunately for us the Hittite ruler, with surprisingly modern busi- 
ness and diplomatic system, retained a copy of this important 
letter, and this copy was found lying in the Boghaz-koi archives, 
among the fragments and wreckage of the foreign office letter file. 

Khetasar had evidently found the Babylonian foreign min- 
ister a serious obstacle to his desired intimacy with the newly 
crowned Babylonian king, and he devoted two long introductory 
paragraphs to a diverting denunciation of the Babylonian states- 
man, whom he hopes the gods will deprive of breath, that he may 
utter no further calumnies. This exchange of courtesies very 
much reminds one of more modern interchanges between foreign 
ministers of Europe since 1914. The Hittite then replies to an 
important question from the Babylonian about the state of the 
former's relations with Egypt. Khetasar states the situation 
very frankly. He says : 

''As to the question which my brother [meaning the Baby- 
lonian] has written concerning the message of the king of Egypt 
. . ., let me tell my brother the following: ' [The king of Egypt] 
and I have become brothers-in-law and brethren, and have agreed 
[with one another] that we are brothers and that therefore 
together [we will fight] an enemy, and together we will main- 
tain friendship [with a] friend!' " "With some information re- 
garding the claims of a wandering border chief, and the disposi- 
tion of a physician borrowed from the Babylonian court, Khetasar 
veils his eagerness to broach the real purpose which his letter is 
to disclose in the final paragraph. In a fatherly tone he leads 
up to the vital and fundamental item of Hittite policy, and with 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 213 

engaging friendliness he flatters his ' ' brother, ' ' the young Baby- 
lonian sovereign, 

"I have learned that my brother has attained ripe manhood 
and is fond of hunting. [I have rejoiced] greatly that [the god] 
Teshub is prospering the offspring of my brother Kadashman- 
turgu( ?) . For this reason go and plunder the land of the enemy. 
And when I hear that [my brother] has smitten the enemy, then 
I will say of my brother: 'A king, who knows how to bear 
weapons !( ?) ' Hesitate not my brother; march against the land 
of the enemy; smite the enemy! . . . March against a land to 
which thou art three, yea four times superior."* 

When we reflect that this letter in passing from the Hittite 
capital in Asia Minor to the young king of Babylonia, would 
unavoidably skirt the border of Assyria for a long way, we can 
easily understand why the letter speaks so cautiously of the 
"enemy" and the "land," but does not mention by name the 
adversary against whom the Hittite urges the Babylonian to 
march. The document might very easily have fallen into Assy- 
rian hands, with embarrassing results. Putting the United States 
in the place of Assyria, and Mexico in the place of Babylonia, 
we shall see that the most finished craftsmanship in diplomacy, 
which we now associate with the name of Zimmermann, was 
already perfectly understood at the Hittite court, and indeed 
throughout Western Asia in the thirteenth century B.C. Recall- 
ing that this amiable missive of the Hittite king was first pub- 
lished in Berlin, we may conjecture that Herr Zimmermann had 
heard of it, and may have taken courage as he reflected that 
such friendly letters may easily lie buried in a foreign office 
for three thousand years and more. He could thus contemplate 
its excavation with equanimity in the days of Macauley 's Hotten- 
tot on London Bridge. 

It is perhaps worth while to note that the young Babylonian 
king followed the Hittite 's advice and attacked Assyria. He 
was crushingly defeated and the outcome of the war was the cap- 
ture of Babylon by the Assyrians and the captivity of the Baby- 
Ionian king. Egypt and Babylon were now rapidly declining, 



* See H. Winekler in Mitt, der Beutschen Orient. Gesellschaft, No. 35, 
pp. 21 ff. 



214 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

and the two rivalries we have mentioned narrowed down to one : 
the inevitable struggle which all Khetasar's diplomatic art had 
failed to avert, the rivalry between Assyria and the Hittites. It 
resulted in the complete destruction of the Hittite Empire, and 
the ultimate supremacy of Assyria over all three of the other 
antagonists in the twofold rivalry at which we have been glanc- 
ing. The international leadership of Assyria, followed by that of 
Persia developed the imperialistic policy and organization which 
found its logical culmination in the Roman Empire and the 
influence of oriental imperialism fundamentally affecting the 
history of the Roman Empire as we know it did, has through that 
Empire also laid a heavy hand upon the history of mankind ever 
since. It brought the divine right of kings into Europe, thus 
enabling the most powerful military sovereign of the world to 
set the mystic nimbus of divine right upon his brow and even in 
this prosaic modern world to invest himself with something of 
its ancient oriental splendor. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 215 



BAEBARA WEINSTOCK LECTURES ON THE MORALS OP TRADE 
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 



THE ETHICS OF CO-OPERATION 
James Hayden Tufts, A.M., B.D., Ph.D. 

Professor of Philosophy in the University of Chicago 

According to Plato's famous myth, two gifts of the gods 
equipped man for living : the one, arts and inventions to supply 
him with the means of livelihood ; the other, reverence and justice 
to be the ordering principles of societies and the bonds of friend- 
ship and conciliation. Agencies for mastery over nature and 
agencies for cooperation among men remain the two great sources 
of human power. But after two thousand years it is possible 
to note an interesting fact as to their relative order of develop- 
ment in civilization. Nearly all the great skills and inventions 
that had been acquired up to the eighteenth century were brought 
into man's service at a very early date. The use of fire, the 
arts of weaver, potter, and metal worker, of sailor, hunter, fisher, 
and sower, early fed man and clothed him. These were carried 
to higher perfection by Egyptian and Greek, by Tyrian and 
Florentine, but it would be difficult to point to any great new 
unlocking of material resources until the days of the chemist 
and electrician. Domestic animals and crude water mills were 
for centuries in man's service, and until steam was harnessed 
no additions were made of new powers. 

During this long period, however, the progress of human 
association made great and varied development. The gap be- 
tween the men of Santander's caves, or early Egypt, and the 
civilization of a century ago is bridged rather by union of 
human powers, by the needs and stimulating contacts of society, 
than by conquest in the field of nature. It was in military, 
political, and religious organization that the power of associated 
effort was first shown. Army, state, and hierarchy were its 



216 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

visible representatives. Then, a little over a century ago, began 
what we call the industrial revolution, still incomplete, which 
combined new natural forces with new forms of human associ- 
ation. Steam, electricity", machines, the factory system, rail- 
roads : these suggest the natural forces at man 's disposal ; capital, 
credit, corporations, labor unions: these suggest the bringing 
together of men and their resources into units for exploiting or 
controlling the new natural forces. Sometimes resisting the 
political, military, or ecclesiastical forces which were earlier in 
the lead, sometimes mastering them, sometimes combining with 
them, economic organization has now taken its place in the world 
as a fourth great structure, or rather as a fourth great agency 
through which man achieves his greater tasks, and in so doing 
becomes conscious of hitherto unrealized powers. 

Early in this great process of social organization three diverg- 
ent types emerged, which still contend for supremacy in the 
worlds of action and of valuation: dominance, competition, and 
cooperation. All mean a meeting of human forces. They rest 
respectively on power, rivalry, and sympathetic interchange. 
Each may contribute to human welfare. On the other hand, 
each may be taken so abstractly as to threaten human values. 
I hope to point out that the greatest of these is cooperation, and 
that it is largely the touchstone for the others. 

Cooperation and dominance both mean organization. Domi- 
nance implies inequality, direction and obedience, superior and 
subordinate. Cooperation implies some sort of equality, some 
mutual relation. It does not exclude difference in ability or 
in function. It does not exclude leadership, for leadership is 
usually necessary to make cooperation effective. But in domi- 
nance the special excellence is kept isolated; ideas are trans- 
mitted from above downward. In cooperation there is inter- 
change, currents flowing in both directions, contacts of mutual 
sympathy, rather than of pride-humility, condescension-servility. 
The purpose of the joint pursuit in organization characterized 
by dominance may be either the exclusive good of the master 
or the joint good of the whole organized group, but in any case 
it is a purpose formed and kept by those few who know. The 
group may share in its execution and its benefits, but not in its 
construction or in the estimating and forecasting of its values. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 217 

The purpose in cooperation is joint. Whether originally sug- 
gested by some leader of thought or action, or whether a com- 
posite of many suggestions in the give and take of discussion 
or in experiences of common need, it is weighed and adopted 
as a common end. It is not the work or possession of leaders 
alone, but embodies in varying degrees the work and active in- 
terest of all. 

Cooperation and competition at first glance may seem more 
radically opposed. For while dominance and cooperation both 
mean union of forces, competition appears to mean antagonism. 
They stand for combination; it for exclusion of one by another. 
Yet a deeper look shows that this is not true of competition in 
what we may call its social, as contrasted with its unsocial, aspect. 
The best illustration of what I venture to call social competition 
is sport. Here is rivalry, and here in any given contest one 
wins, the other loses, or few win and many lose. But the great 
thing in sport is not to win; the great thing is the game, the 
contest ; and the contest is no contest unless the contestants are 
so nearly equal as to forbid any certainty in advance as to which 
will win. The best sport is found when no one contestant wins 
too often. There is in reality a common purpose — the zest of 
contest. Players combine and compete to carry out this pur- 
pose; and the rules are designed so to restrict the competition 
as to rule out certain kinds of action and preserve friendly re- 
lations. The contending rivals are in reality uniting to stimu- 
late each other. Without the cooperation there would be no 
competition, and the competition is so conducted as to continue 
the relation. Competition in the world of thought is similarly 
social. In efforts to reach a solution of a scientific problem or 
to discuss a policy, the spur of rivalry or the matching of wits 
aids the common purpose of arriving at the truth. Similar 
competition exists in business. Many a firm owes its success 
to the competition of its rivals which has forced it to be efficient, 
progressive. As a manufacturing friend once remarked to me : 
"When the other man sells cheaper, you generally find he has 
found out something you don 't know. ' ' 

But we also apply the term "competition" to rivalry in 
which there is no common purpose ; to contests in which there is 
no intention to continue or repeat the match, and in which no 



218 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

rules control. "Weeds compete with flowers and crowd them out. 
The factory competes with the hand loom and banishes it. The 
trust competes with the small firm and puts it out of business. 
The result is monopoly. "When plants or inventions are thus 
said to compete for a place, there is frequently no room for 
both competitors, and no social gain by keeping both in the field. 
Competition serves here sometimes as a method of selection, 
although no one would decide to grow weeds rather than flowers 
because weeds are more efficient. In the case of what are called 
natural monopolies there is duplication of effort instead of co- 
operation. Competition is here wasteful. But when we have 
to do, not with a specific product, or with a fixed field, such as 
that of street railways or city lighting, but with the open field 
of invention and service, we need to provide for continuous co- 
operation, and competition seems at least one useful agency. 
To retain this, we frame rules against "unfair competition." 
As the rules of sport are designed to place a premium upon 
certain kinds of strength and skill which make a good game, so 
the rules of fair competition are designed to secure efficiency 
for public service, and to exclude efficiency in choking or fouling. 
In unfair competition there is no common purpose of public 
service or of advancing skill or invention ; hence, no cooperation. 
The cooperative purpose or result is thus the test of useful, as 
contrasted with wasteful or harmful competition. 

There is also an abstract conception of cooperation, which, 
in its one-sided emphasis upon equality, excludes any form of 
leadership, or direction, and in fear of inequality allows no 
place for competition. Selection of rulers by lot in a large and 
complex group is one illustration; jealous suspicion of ability, 
which becomes a cult of incompetence, is another. Refusals to 
accept inventions which require any modification of industry, or 
to recognize any inequalities of service, are others. But these 
do not affect the value of the principle as we can now define it 
in preliminary fashion: union tending to secure common ends, 
by a method which promotes equality, and with an outcome of 
increased power shared by all. 



SPECIAL LECTURES 219 

What are we to understand by the Ethics of Cooperation? 
Can we find some external standard of unquestioned value or 
absolute duty by which to measure the three processes of society 
which we have named: dominance, competition, cooperation? 
Masters of the past have offered many such, making appeal to 
the logic of reason or the response of sentiment, to the will for 
mastery or the claim of benevolence. To make a selection with- 
out giving reasons would seem arbitrary; to attempt a reasoned 
discussion would take us quite beyond the bounds appropriate 
to this lecture. But aside from the formulations of philosophers, 
humanity has been struggling — often rather haltingly and 
blindly — for certain goods and setting certain sign-posts which, 
if they do not point to a highway, at least mark certain paths 
as blind alleys. Such goods I take to be the great words : liberty, 
power, justice; such signs of blind paths I take to be rigidity, 
passive acceptance of what is. 

But those great words, just because they are so great, are 
given various meanings by those who would claim them for their 
own. Nor is there complete agreement as to just what paths 
deserve to be posted as leading nowhere. Groups characterized by 
dominance, cut-throat competition, or cooperation, tend to work 
out each its own interpretations of liberty, power, justice; its 
own code for the conduct of its members. Without assuming to 
decide your choice, I can indicate briefly what the main elements 
in these values and codes are. 

The group of masters and servants will develop what we 
have learned to call a morality of masters and a morality of 
slaves. This was essentially the code of the feudal system. We 
have survivals of such a group morality in our code of the gentle- 
man, which in England still depreciates manual labor, although 
it has been refined and softened and enlarged to include respect 
for other than military and sportsman virtues. The code of 
masters exalts liberty — for the ruling class — and resents any 
restraint by inferiors or civilians, or by public opinion of any 
group but its own. It has a justice which takes for its premise 
a graded social order, and seeks to put and keep every man in 
his place. But its supreme value is power, likewise for the few, 
or for the state as consisting of society organized and directed 
by the ruling class. Such a group, according to Treitschke, will 



220 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

also need war, in order to test and exhibit its power to the utmost 
in fierce struggle with other powers. It will logically honor war 
as good. 

A group practicing cut-throat competition will simply reverse 
the order: first, struggle to put rivals out of the field; then, 
monopoly with unlimited power to control the market or possess 
the soil. It appeals to nature's struggle for existence as its 
standard for human life. It, too, sets a high value upon liberty 
in the sense of freedom from control, but originating as it did 
in resistance to control by privilege and other aspects of domi- 
nance, it has never learned the defects of a liberty which takes 
no account of ignorance, poverty, and ill-health. It knows the 
liberty of nature, the liberty of the strong and the swift, but 
not the liberty achieved by the common effort for all. It knows 
justice, but a justice which is likely to be defined as securing 
to each his natural liberty, and which, therefore, means non- 
interference with the struggle for existence except to prevent 
violence and fraud. It takes no account as to whether the 
struggle kills few or many, or distributes goods widely or spar- 
ingly, or whether indeed there is any room at the table which 
civilization spreads ; though it does not begrudge charity if ad- 
ministered under that name. 

A cooperating group has two working principles : first, com- 
mon purpose and common good; second, that men can achieve 
by common effort what they cannot accomplish singly. The first, 
reinforced by the actual interchange of ideas and services, tends 
to favor equality. It implies mutual respect, confidence, and 
good will. The second favors a constructive and progressive 
attitude, which will find standards neither in nature nor in 
humanity's past, since it conceives man able to change conditions 
to a considerable extent and thus to realize new goods. 

These principles tend toward a type of liberty different from 
those just mentioned. As contrasted with the liberty of a domi- 
nant group, cooperation favors a liberty for all, a liberty of 
"live and let live," a tolerance and welcome for variation in 
type, provided only this is willing to make its contribution to 
the common weal. Instead of imitation or passive acceptance 
of patterns on the part of the majority, it stimulates active con- 
struction. As contrasted with the liberty favored in competing 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 221 

groups, cooperation would emphasize positive control over natural 
forces, over health conditions, over poverty and fear. It would 
make each person share as fully as possible in the knowledge 
and strength due to combined effort, and thus liberate him from 
many of the limitations which have hitherto hampered him. 

Similarly with justice. Cooperation's ethics of distribution 
is not rigidly set by the actual interest and rights of the past, 
on the one hand, nor by hitherto available resources on the other. 
Neither natural rights nor present ability and present service 
form a complete measure. Since cooperation evokes new inter- 
ests and new capacities, it is hospitable to new claims and new 
rights; since it makes new sources of supply available, it has 
in view the possibility at least of doing better for all than can 
an abstract insistence upon old claims. It may often avoid the 
deadlock of a rigid system. It is better to grow two blades of 
grass than to dispute who shall have the larger fraction of the 
one which has previously been the yield. It is better, not merely 
because there is more grass but also because men's attitude be- 
comes forward-looking and constructive, not pugnacious and 
rigid. 

Power is likewise a value in a cooperating group, but it must 
be power not merely used for the good of all but to some extent 
controlled by all and thus actually shared. Only as so con- 
trolled and so shared is power attended by the responsibility 
which makes it safe for its possessors. Only on this basis does 
power over other men permit the free choices on their part which 
are essential to full moral life. 

As regards the actual efficiency of a cooperating group, it 
may be granted that its powers are not so rapidly mobilized. 
In small, homogeneous groups, the loss of time is small ; in large 
groups the formation of public opinion and the conversion of 
this into action is still largely a problem rather than an achieve- 
ment. New techniques have to be developed, and it may be that 
for certain military tasks the military technique will always be 
more efficient. To the cooperative group, however, this test will 
not be the ultimate ethical test. It will rather consider the 
possibilities of substituting for war other activities in which 
cooperation is superior. And if the advocate of war insists that 
war as such is the most glorious and desirable type of life, co- 



232 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENAB¥ 

operation may perhaps fail to convert him. But it may hope 
to create a new order whose excellence shall be justified of her 
children. 

A glance at the past roles of dominance, competition, and 
cooperation in the institutions of government, religion, and com- 
merce and industry, will aid us to consider cooperation in re- 
lation to present international problems. 

Primitive tribal life had elements of each of the three prin- 
ciples we have named. But with discovery by some genius of 
the power of organization for war the principle of dominance 
won, seemingly at a flash, a decisive position. No power of 
steam or lightning has been so spectacular and wide-reaching as 
the power which Egyptian, Assyrian, Macedonian, Roman, and 
their modern successors in overlordship introduced and eon- 
trolled. Political states owing their rise to military means 
naturally followed the military pattern. The sharp separation 
between ruler or ruling group and subject people, based on 
conquest, was perpetuated in class distinction. Gentry and 
simple, lord and villein, were indeed combined in exploitation 
of earth's resources, but cooperation was in the background, 
mastery in the fore. And when empires included peoples of 
various races and cultural advance the separation between higher 
and lower became intensified. Yet though submerged for long 
periods, the principle of cooperation has asserted itself, step by 
step, and it seldom loses ground. Beginning usually in some 
group which at first combined to resist dominance, it has made 
its way through such stages as equality before the law, abolition 
of special privileges, extension of suffrage, influence of public 
sentiment, interchange of ideas, toward genuine participation 
by all in the dignity and responsibility of political power. It 
builds a Panama Canal, it maintains a great system of education, 
and has, we may easily believe, yet greater tasks in prospect. 
It may be premature to predict its complete displacement of 
dominance in our own day as a method of government, yet who 
in America doubts its ultimate prevalence ? 

Religion presents a fascinating mixture of cooperation with 
dominance, on the one hand, and exclusiveness, on the other. 
The central fact is the community, which seeks some common 



SPECIAL LECTUEES 223 

end in ritual or in beneficent activity. But at an early period 
leaders became invested, or invested themselves, with a sanctity 
which led to dominance. Not the power of force, but that of 
mystery and the invisible raised the priest above the level of the 
many. And, on another side, competition between rival national 
religions, like that between states, excluded friendly contacts. 
Jew and Samaritan had no dealings; between the followers of 
Baal and Jehovah there was no peace but by extermination. 
Yet it was religion which confronted the Herrenmoj'al with the 
first reversal of values, and declared : "So shall it not be among 
you. But whosoever will be great among you let him be your 
minister." And it was religion which cut across national boun- 
daries in its vision of what Professor Royce so happily calls the 
Great Community. Protest against dominance resulted, how- 
ever, in divisions, and, although cooperation in practical activities 
has done much to prepare the way for national understanding, 
the hostile forces of the world today lack the restraint which 
might have come from a united moral sentiment and moral will. 
In the economic field the story of dominance, cooperation, 
and competition is more complex than in government and re- 
ligion. It followed somewhat different courses in trade and in 
industry. The simplest way to supply needs with goods is to 
go and take them ; the simplest way to obtain services is to seize 
them. Dominance in the first case gives piracy and plunder, 
when directed against those without ; fines and taxes, when ex- 
ercised upon those within: in the second case, it gives slavery 
or forced levies. But trade, as a voluntary exchange of presents, 
or as a bargaining for mutual advantage, had likewise its early 
beginnings. Carried on at first with timidity and distrust, be- 
cause the parties belonged to different groups, it has developed 
a high degree of mutual confidence between merchant and cus- 
tomer, banker and client, insurer and insured. By its system 
of contracts and fiduciary relations, which bind men of the most 
varying localities, races, occupations, social classes, and national 
allegiance, it has woven a new net of human relations far more 
intricate and wide-reaching than the natural ties of blood kin- 
ship. It rests upon mutual responsibility and good faith; it is 
a constant force for their extension. 



224 VNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

The industrial side of the process has had similar influence 
toward union. Free craftsmen in the towns found mutual sup- 
port in guilds, when as yet the farm laborer or villein had to get 
on as best he could unaided. The factory system itself has been 
largely organized from above down. It has very largely as- 
sumed that the higher command needs no advice or ideas from 
below. Hours of labor, shop conditions, wages, have largely been 
fixed by "orders," just as governments once ruled by decrees. 
But as dominance in government has led men to unite against 
the new power and then has yielded to the more complete co- 
operation of participation, so in industry the factory system has 
given rise to the labor movement. As for the prospects of fuller 
cooperation, this may be said already to have displaced the older 
autocratic system within the managing group, and the war is 
giving an increased impetus to extension of the process. 

Exchange of goods and services is indeed a threefold co- 
operation: it meets wants which the parties cannot themselves 
satisfy or cannot well satisfy ; it awakens new wants ; it calls new 
inventions and new forces into play. It thus not only satisfies 
man's existing nature but enlarges his capacity for enjoyment 
and his active powers. It makes not only for comfort but for 
progress. 

If trade and industry, however, embody so fully the principle 
of cooperation, how does it come about that they have, on the 
whole, had a rather low reputation, not only among the class 
groups founded on militarism but among philosophers and mor- 
alists? Why do we find the present calamities of war charged 
to economic causes? Perhaps the answer to these questions will 
point the path along which better cooperation may be expected. 
There is, from the outset, one defect in the cooperation be- 
tween buyer and seller, employer and laborer. The cooperation 
is largely unintended. Each is primarily thinking of his own 
advantage, rather than that of the other, or of the social whole ; 
he is seeking it in terms of money, which as a material object 
must be in the pocket of one party or of the other, and is not, 
like friendship or beauty, sharable. Mutual benefit is the result 
of exchange: it need not be the motive. This benefit comes 
about as if it were arranged by an invisible hand, said Adam 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 225 

Smith. Indeed, it was long held that if one of the bargainers 
gained the other must lose. And when under modern conditions 
labor is considered as a commodity to be bought and sold in the 
cheapest market by an impersonal corporate employer, there is 
a strong presumption against the cooperative attitude on either 
side. 

The great problem here is, therefore: How can men be 
brought to seek consciously what now they unintentionally pro- 
duce ? How can the man whose ends are both self -centered and 
ignoble be changed into the man whose ends are wide and high ? 
Something may doubtless be done by showing that a narrow 
selfishness is stupid. If we rule out monopoly, the best way to 
gain great success is likely to lie through meeting needs of a 
great multitude; and to meet these effectively implies entering 
by imagination and sympathy into their situation. The business 
maxim of "service," the practices of refunding money if goods 
are unsatisfactory, of one price to all, of providing sanitary and 
even attractive factories and homes, and of paying a minimum 
wage far in excess of the market price, have often proved highly 
remunerative. Yet I should not place exclusive and perhaps 
not chief reliance on these methods of appeal. They are analo- 
gous to the old maxim, honesty is the best policy ; and we know 
too well that while this holds under certain conditions, that is, 
among intelligent people, or in the long run, it is often possible 
to acquire great gains by exploiting the weak, deceiving the 
ignorant, or perpetrating a fraud of such proportions that men 
forget its dishonesty in admiration at its audacity. In the end 
it is likely to prove that the level of economic life is to be raised 
not by proving that cooperation will better satisfy selfish and 
ignoble interests, but rather by creating new standards for meas- 
uring success, new interests in social and worthy ends, and by 
strengthening the appeal of duty where this conflicts with present 
interests. The one method stakes all on human nature as it is ; 
the other challenges man's capacity to listen to new appeals and 
respond to better motives. It is, if you please, idealism; but 
before it is dismissed as worthless, consider what has been 
achieved in substituting social motives in the field of political 
action. There was a time when the aim in political life was 
undisguisedly selfish. The state, in distinction from the kinship 



226 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICl!,NTENAB¥ 

group or the village community, was organized for power and 
profit. It was nearly a gigantic piratical enterprise, highly 
profitable to its managers. The shepherd, says Thrasymachus 
in Plato's dialogue, does not feed his sheep for their benefit, but 
for his own. Yet now, what president or minister, legislator or 
judge, would announce as his aim to acquire the greatest financial 
profit from his position ? Even in autocratically governed coun- 
tries it is at least the assumption that the good of the state does 
not mean solely the prestige and wealth of the ruler, 

A great social and political order has been built up, and we 
all hold that it must not be exploited for private gain. It has 
not been created or maintained by chance. Nor could it survive 
if every man sought primarily his own advantage and left the 
commonwealth to care for itself. Nor in a democracy would it 
be maintained, provided the governing class alone were disin- 
terested, deprived of private property, and given education, as 
Plato suggested. The only safety is in the general and intelligent 
desire for the public interest and common welfare. At this 
moment almost unanimous acceptance of responsibility for what 
we believe to be the public good and the maintenance of American 
ideals — though it brings to each of us sacrifice and to many the 
full measure of devotion — bears witness to the ability of human 
nature to adopt as its compelling motives a high end which 
opposes private advantage. 

Is the economic process too desperate a field for larger mo- 
tives ? To me it seems less desperate than the field of government 
in the days of autocratic kings. One great need is to substitute 
a different standard of success for the financial gains which have 
seemed the only test. Our schools of commerce are aiming to 
perform this service, by introducing professional standards. A 
physician is measured by his ability to cure the sick, an engineer 
by the soundness of his bridge and ship; why not measure a 
railroad president by his ability to supply coal in winter, to 
run trains on time, and decrease the cost of freight, rather than 
by his private accumulation? Why not measure a merchant or 
banker by similar tests? 

Mankind has built up a great economic system. Pioneer, 
adventurer, inventor, scientist, laborer, organizer, all have con- 
tributed. It is as essential to human welfare as the political sys- 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 227 

tern, and like that system it comes to us as an inheritance. I can 
see no reason why it should be thought unworthy of a statesman 
or a judge to use the political structure for his own profit, but 
perfectly justifiable for a man to exploit the economic structure 
for private gain. This does not necessarily exclude profit as 
a method of paying for services, and of increasing capital needed 
for development, but it would seek to adjust profits to services, 
and treat capital, just as it regards political power, as a public 
trust in need of cooperative regulation and to be used for the 
general welfare. 

But the war is teaching with dramatic swiftness what it 
might have needed decades of peace to bring home to us. We 
are thinking of the common welfare. High prices may still be 
a rough guide to show men's needs, but we are learning to raise 
wheat because others need it, not merely because the price is 
high. Prices may also be a rough guide to consumption, but we 
are learning that eating wheat or sugar is not merely a matter 
of what I can afford. It is a question of whether I take wheat 
or sugar away from some one else who needs it — ^the soldier in 
France, the child in Belgium, the family of my less fortunate 
neighbor. The great argument for not interfering with private 
exchange in all such matters has been that if prices should by 
some authority be kept low in time of scarcity men would con- 
sume the supply too rapidly; whereas if prices rise in response 
to scarcity men at once begin to economize and so prevent the 
total exhaustion of the supply. We now reflect that if prices 
of milk rise it does not mean uniform economy ; it means cutting 
off to a large degree the children of the poor and leaving rela- 
tively untouched the consumption of the well-to-do. Merely 
raising the price of meat or wheat means taking these articles 
from the table of one class to leave them upon the table of 
another. War, requiring, as it does, the united strength and 
purpose of the whole people, has found this method antiquated. 
In Europe governments have said to their peoples : we must all 
think of the common weal; we must all share alike. In this 
country, the appeal of the food administrator, though largely 
without force of law, has been loyally answered by the great 
majority. It is doubtless rash to predict how much peace will 
retain of what war has taught, but who of us will again say so 



228 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAET 

easily, "My work or leisure, my economy or my luxury, is my 
own affair, if I can afford it ? " Who can fail to see that common 
welfare comes not without common intention? 

The second great defect in our economic order, from the 
point of view of cooperation, has been the inequality of its dis- 
tribution. This has been due largely to competition when parties 
were unequal, not merely in their ability but in their oppor- 
tunity. And the most serious, though not the most apparent 
aspect of this inequality, has not been that some have more 
comfort or luxuries to enjoy; it is the fact that wealth means 
power. In so far as it can set prices on all that we eat, wear, 
and enjoy, it is controlling the intimate affairs of life more 
thoroughly than any government ever attempted. In so far as 
it controls natural resources, means of transportation, organiza- 
tion of credit, and the capital necessary for large-scale manu- 
facturing and marketing, it can set prices. The great questions, 
then, are, as with political power: How can this great power 
be cooperatively used 1 Is it serving all or a few ? 

Two notable doctrines of the courts point ways for ethics. 
The first is that of property affected with public interest. Ap- 
plied thus far by the courts to warehouses, transportation, and 
similar public services, what limits can we set ethically to the 
docrine that power of one man over his fellows, whether through 
his office or through his property, is affected with public interest 1 

The police power, which sets the welfare of all above private 
property when these conflict, is a second doctrine whose ethical 
import far outruns its legal applications. 

Yet it is by neither of these that the most significant progress 
has been made toward removing that handicap of inequality 
which is the chief injustice of our economic system. It is by 
our great educational system, liberal in its provisions, generously 
supported by all classes, unselfishly served, opening to all doors 
of opportunity which once were closed to the many, the most 
successful department of our democratic institutions in helping 
and gaining confidence of all — a system of which this University 
of California is one of the most notable leaders and the most 
useful members — that fair conditions for competition and in- 
telligent cooperation in the economic world are increasingly 
possible. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 229 

What bearing has this sketch of the significance and progress 
of cooperation upon the international questions which now over- 
shadow all else? Certainly the world canont remain as before: 
great powers struggling for empire ; lesser powers struggling for 
their separate existence ; great areas of backward peoples viewed 
as subjects for exploitation; we ourselves aloof. It must then 
choose between a future world order based on dominance, which 
means world empire ; a world order based on nationalism joined 
with the non-social type of competition, which means, every 
nation the judge of its own interests, continuance of jealousies, 
and from time to time the recurrence of war ; and a world order 
based on nationalism plus international cooperation, "to estab- 
lish justice, to provide for comomn defense, to promote the gen- 
eral welfare, and to secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves 
and our posterity." 

It is not necessary to discuss in this country the principle 
of dominance and world empire. It contradicts our whole phil- 
osophy. Safety for dominance lies only in a civilzation of dis- 
cipline from above down, in ruthless repression of all thinking 
on the part of the subject class or race. 

Nor can I see any genuine alternative in what some advo- 
cate — reliance by each nation on its own military strength as 
the sole effective guarantee for its interests. After the military 
lessons of this war, the concentration of scientific, economic, and 
even educational attention upon military purposes would almost 
inevitably be vastly in excess of anything previously conceived. 
What limits can be set to the armies of France and Great Britain 
if these are to protect those countries from a German empire 
already double its previous extent, and taking steps to control 
the resources of eastern Europe and the near East ? What navy 
could guarantee German commerce against the combined forces 
of Great Britain and the United States? What limits to the 
f rightfulness yet to be discovered by chemists and bacteriologist ? 
What guarantee against the insidious growth of a militarist at- 
titude even in democratically minded peoples if the constant 
terror of war exalts military preparations to the supreme place ? 
Something has changed the Germany of other days which many 
of us loved even while we shrank from its militarist masters. 
Is it absolutely certain that nothing can change the spirit of 



230 umVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

democratic peoples? At any rate, America, which has experi- 
mented on a larger scale with cooperation — political, economic, 
and religious — than any other continent, may well assert steadily 
and insistently that this is the more hopeful path. It may urge 
this upon distrustful Europe. 

The obstacles to cooperation are: 

1. The survival of the principle of dominance, showing itself 
in desire for political power and prestige, and in certain concep- 
tions of national honor. 

2. The principle of non-social competition, exhibited in part 
in the political policy of eliminating weaker peoples, and con- 
spicuously in foreign trade when the use of unfair methods relies 
upon national power to back up its exploitation or monopoly. 

3. The principle of nationalistic sentiment, itself based on 
cooperation, on social tradition, and on common ideals, but bound 
up so closely with political sovereignty and antagonisms as to 
become exclusive instead of cooperative in its attitude toward 
other cultures. 

The principle of dominance deters from cooperation not only 
the people that seeks to dominate but peoples that fear to be 
dominated or to become involved in entangling alliances. Doubt- 
less a policy of aloofness was long the safe policy for us. We 
could not trust political liberty to an alliance with monarchies, 
even as with equal right some European peoples might distrust 
the policies of a republic seemingly controlled by the slavery 
interest. At the present time one great power professes itself 
incredulous of the fairness of any world tribunal ; smaller powers 
fear the commanding influence of the great ; new national groups 
just struggling to expression fear that a league of nations would 
be based on present status, and, therefore, would give them no 
recognition or else a measure of recognition conditioned by past 
injustices rather than by future aspirations and real desert. All 
these fears are justified in so far as the principle of dominance 
is still potent. The only league that can be trusted by peoples 
willing to live and let live is one that is controlled by a co- 
operative spirit. And yet who can doubt that this spirit is 
spreading? Few governments are now organized on the avowed 
basis that military power, which embodies the spirit of domi- 
nance, should be superior to civil control, and even with them 



SPECIAL LECTUSES 231 

the principle of irresponsible rule, despite its reinforcement by 
military success, is likely to yield to the spirit of the age when 
once the pressure of war is removed which now holds former 
protesters against militarism solid in its support. For all powers 
that are genuine in their desire for cooperation there is over- 
whelming reason to try it; only by the combined strength of 
those who accept this principle can liberty and justice be main- 
tained against the aggression of powers capable of concentrating 
all their resources with a suddenness and ruthlessness in which 
dominance is probably superior. 

Yet cooperation for protection of liberty and justice is liable 
to fall short of humanity's hopes unless liberty and justice be 
themselves defined in a cooperative sense. The great liberties 
which man has gained, as step by step he has risen from sav- 
agery, have not been chiefly the assertion of already existing 
powers or the striking off of fetters forged by his fellows. They 
have been additions to previous powers. Science, art, invention, 
associated life in all its forms, have opened the windows of his 
dwelling, have given possibilities to his choice, have given the 
dream and the interpretation which have set him free from his 
prison. The liberty to which international cooperation points 
is not merely self-direction or self-determination but a larger 
freedom from fear, a larger freedom from suspicion, a fuller 
control over nature and society, a new set of ideas, which will 
make men free in a far larger degree than ever before. 

Similarly justice needs to be cooperatively defined. A justice 
that looks merely to existing status will not give lasting peace. 
Peoples change in needs as truly as they differ in needs. But 
no people can be trusted to judge its own needs any more than 
to judge its own right. A justice which adheres rigidly to 
vested interests and a justice which is based on expanding inter- 
ests are likely to be deadlocked unless a constructive spirit is 
brought to bear. Abstract rights to the soil, to trade, to ex- 
pansion, must be subordinate to the supreme question: How 
can peoples live together and help instead of destroy ? This can 
be approached only from an international point of view. 

The second obstacle, unsocial competition, is for trade what 
dominance is in politics. It prevents that solution for many of 
the delicate problems of international life which cooperation 



232 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

through trade might otherwise afford. Exchange of goods and 
services by voluntary trade accomplishes what once seemed at- 
tainable only by conquest or slavery. If Germany or Japan or 
Italy needs iron or coal, if England needs wheat, or the United 
States sugar, it is possible, or should be possible, to obtain these 
without owning the country in which are the mines, grain, and 
sugar cane. The United States needs Canada's products; it has 
no desire to own Canada. But in recent years the exchange of 
products has been subjected to a new influence. National self- 
interest has been added to private self-interest. This has in- 
tensified and called out many of the worst features of antagonism 
and inequality. Few in this country have realized the extent 
to which other countries have organized their foreign commerce 
on national lines. "We are now becoming informed as to the 
carefully worked out programmes of commercial education, mer- 
chant marines, trade agreements, consular service, financial and 
moral support from the home government, and mutual aid among 
various salesmen of the same nationality living in a foreign 
country. We are preparing to understake similar enterprises. 
"We are reminded^ that ' ' eighty per cent of the world 's people 
live in the countries bordering on the Pacific Ocean, and that 
as a result of the rearrangement of trade routes, San Francisco's 
chance of becoming the greatest distributing port of the Pacific 
for goods en route to the markets of the Orient, are now more 
promising than ever before." Can the United States take part 
in this commerce in such a way as to help, not hinder, interna- 
tional progress in harmony ? Not unless we remember that com- 
merce may be as predatory as armies, and that we must provide 
international guarantees against the exclusive types of compe- 
tition which we have had to control by law in our own domestic 
affairs. An Indian or an African may be deprived of his pos- 
sessions quite as effectively by trade as by violence. We need 
at least as high standards of social welfare in foreign as in domes- 
tic commerce. I cannot better present the situation than by 
quoting from a recent article by Mr. William Notz in the Journal 
of Political Economy (February, 1918) : 

"During the past twenty -five years competition in the world 
markets became enormously keen. In the wild scramble for trade 
the standards of honest business were disregarded more and more 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 233 

by all the various rival nations. In the absense of any special 
regulation or legislation, it appeared as though a silent under- 
standing prevailed in wide circles that foreign trade was subject 
to a code of business ethics widely at variance with the rules 
observed in domestic trade. What was frowned upon as un- 
ethical and poor business policy, if not illegal at home, was con- 
doned and winked at or openly espoused when foreign markets 
formed the basis of operations and foreigners were the competi- 
tors. High-minded men of all nations have long observed with 
concern the growing tendency of modern international trade to- 
ward selfish exploitation, concession-hunting, cut-throat competi- 
tion, and commercialistic practices of the most sordid type. Time 
and again complaints have been voiced, retaliatory measures 
threatened, and more than once serious friction has ensued. ' ' 

Mr. Notz brings to our attention various efforts by official 
and commercial bodies looking toward remedies for such condi- 
tions and toward official recognition by all countries of unfair 
competition as a penal offense. 

What more do we need than fair competition to constitute 
the cooperative international life which we dreamed yesterday 
and now must consider, not merely as a dream but as the only 
alternative to a future of horror ? 

Free trade has been not unnaturally urged as at least one 
condition. Tariffs certainly isolate. To say to a country, ' ' You 
shall manufacture nothing unless you own the raw material ; you 
shall sell nothing unless at prices which I fix," is likely to pro- 
voke the reply: "Then I must acquire lands in which raw 
materials are found ; I must acquire colonies which will buy my 
products." Trade agreements mean cooperation for those with- 
in, unless they are one-sided and made under duress; in any 
case they are exclusive of those without. Free trade, the open 
door, seems to offer a better way. But free trade in name is 
not free trade unless the parties are really free, free from ignor- 
ance, from pressure of want. If one party is weak and the other 
unscrupulous, if one competitor has a lower standard of living 
than the other, freedom of trade will not mean genuine co- 
operation. Such cooperation as means good for all requires 
either an equality of conditions between traders and laborers of 
competing nations and of nations which exchange goods, or else 



234 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

an international control to prevent unfair competition, exploi- 
tation of weaker peoples, and lowering of standards of living. 
Medical science is giving an object lesson which may well have 
a wide application. It is seeking to combat disease in its centers 
of diffusion. Instead of attempting to quarantine against the 
Orient, it is aiding the Orient to overcome those conditions which 
do harm alike to Orient and Occident. Plague, anthrax, yellow 
fever, cannot exist in one country without harm to all. Nor in 
the long run can men reach true cooperation so long as China 
and Africa are a prize for the exploiter rather than equals in 
the market. Not merely in the political sense but in its larger 
meanings democracy here is not safe without democracy there. 
Education, and the lifting of all to a higher level, is the ultimate 
goal. And until education, invention, and intercommunication 
have done their work of elevation, international control must 
protect and regulate. 

In many respects the obstacle to international cooperation 
which is most difficult to remove is the strong and still growing 
sentiment of nationality. This is not, like dominance, a waning 
survival of a cruder method of social order ; it is a genuine type 
of cooperation. Rooted as it is in a historic past, in community 
of ideals and traditions and usually of language and art, it 
wakens the emotional response to a degree once true only of 
religion. Born of such a social tradition the modern may be 
said in truth, mentally and spiritually, as well as physically, to 
be born a Frenchman or a German, a Scotchman or Irishman 
or Englishman. He may be content to merge this inheritance 
in an empire if he can be senior partner, but the struggles of 
Irish, Poles, Czechs, and South Slavs, the Zionist movement, the 
nationalistic stirrings in India, with their literary revivals, their 
fierce self-assertions, seem to point away from internationalism 
rather than toward it. The Balkans, in which Serb, Bulgar, 
Roumanian, and Greek have been developing this national con- 
sciousness, have been the despair of peacemakers. 

The strongest point in the nationalist programme is, however, 
not in any wise opposed to cooperation, but rather to dominance 
or non-social competition. The strongest point is the importance 
of diversity combined with group unity for the fullest enrich- 
ment of life and the widest development of human capacity. 



SPECIAL LEC TUBES 235 

A world all of one sort would not only be less interesting but 
less progressive. We are stimulated by different customs, tem- 
peraments, arts, and ideals. But all this is the strongest argu- 
ment for genuine cooperation, since by this only can diversity 
be helpful, even as it is only through diversity in its members 
that a community can develop fullest life. A world organization 
based on the principle that any single group is best and therefore 
ought to rule or to displace all others would be a calamity. A 
world organization which encourages every member to be itself 
would be a blessing. 

Why do nationalism and internationalism clash? Because 
this national spirit has rightly or wrongly been bound up so 
intimately with political independence. Tara's harp long hangs 
mute when Erin is conquered. Poland's children must not use 
a language in which they might learn to plot against their 
masters. A French-speaking Alsatian is suspected of disloyalty. 
Professor Dewey has recently pointed out that in the United 
States we have gone far towards separating culture from the 
state, and suggests that this may be the path of peace for Europe. 
We aUow groups to keep their religion, their language, their 
song festivals. It may perhaps be claimed that this maintenance 
of distinct languages and separate cultures is a source of weak- 
ness in such a crisis as we now face. Yet it may well be urged, 
on the other hand, that a policy less liberal would have increased 
rather than diminished disunion and disloyalty. 

The student of human progress is likely to be increasingly 
impressed with the interaction between ideas and institutions. 
How far does man build and shape institutions to give body to 
his ideas? How far is it the organized life with its social con- 
tacts, its give and take, its enlargement of its membership to see 
life suh specie communitatis, which itself brings ideas to birth? 
Desire may bring the sexes together, but it is the association and 
organized relationships of the family which transform casual to 
permanent affection and shape our conceptions of its values. A 
herding instinct or a common need of defense or of food supplies 
may bring together early groups, and will to power may begin 
the state, but it is the living together which generates laws and 
wakens the craving for liberty and the struggle for justice. Seer 



236 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENAB7 

and poet doubtless contribute to progress by their kindling ap- 
peals to the imagination and sympathy; the philosopher may, 
as Plato claimed for him, live as citizen of a perfect state which 
has no earthly being, and shape his life according to its laws; 
but mankind in general has learned law and right, as well as 
the arts of use and beauty, in the school of life in common. 

So it is likely to be with international cooperation. Fears 
and hopes now urge it upon a reluctant, incredulous world. But 
the beginnings — scientific, legal, commercial, political — ^timid and 
imperfect though they be, like our own early confederation, will 
work to reshape those who take part. Mutual understanding 
will increase with common action. When men work consistently 
to create new resources instead of treating their world as a fixed 
system, when they see it as a fountain, not as a cistern, they will 
gradually gain a new spirit. The Great Community must create 
as well as prove the ethics of cooperation. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 237 



THE FACULTY EESEAUCH LECTURE OF THE UNIVERSITY 
OF CALIFORNIA 



CERVANTES AND SPAIN'S GOLDEN CENTURY 
OF LETTERS 

Professor Rudolph Schevill, Ph.D. 
Professor of Spanish, University of California 

Literary investigation is not infrequently looked upon by the 
average person as an innocent amusement or, at best, a harmless, 
because unpractical, occupation. To most college students of 
today it seems to imply the reading on the part of the teacher 
of a certain number of so-called masterpieces, in order that he 
may be able to talk about them in the classroom. It is logical 
that this should be so. For our teaching often fails to impress 
the student with the fundamental principle of literary research ; 
that it demands not only a detailed study of any particular 
nation's civilization, but, in the profoundest sense, a "wide sym- 
pathy for all mankind. Moreover, when that nation is not our 
own, investigation of its literature must evidently begin at the 
beginning of all things. The student must rear for himself a 
wholly new edifice of traditions, history, and culture, which may, 
for the most part, have little in common with his own. 

As regards the peculiar history and literature of the Spanish 
Peninsula the foreigner finds himself confronted with a number 
of complex problems, the solution and understanding of which 
require not only an unclouded vision and single-mindedness, but 
incessant and wide reading ; and, above all, an unswerving pur- 
pose to be enlisted by no traditional prejudices; for the mere 
approach to Spanish studies brings us into touch with a number 
of stubborn poiats of view, which are always associated with 
certain high lights in Spanish history and literature, and hinder 
the growth of an intelligent sympathy for everything else in her 
varied and fascinating civilization. I refer to the inevitable 
awakening of a limited number of time worn memories whenever 



238 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

the name of Spain is mentioned; among them, the conquest of 
America (often stigmatized as cruel and inspired by mere 
cupidity for gold), the Inquisition, the expulsion of the Jew, the 
reduction of the Moor, the suppression of the Netherlands, the 
hatred of Protestant England, all of which are condemned as 
fanatical or narrow minded manifestations, without regard for 
an equitable application of such strictures to the world in gen- 
eral as it was in that age. These subjects have became for us 
stirring themes of adventure, matter for romance and story, 
when they have not been objects of unsound criticism and 
diatribe. Taken all in all, any interpretation of them on the 
part of foreigners has never been free from that unthinking 
antagonism born of a distant age of narrow racial and religious 
misunderstanding. We speak of the glamour of these great 
topics, but not without a complacent shudder over their repellent 
phases, a kind of inherited antipathy intended to show how great 
is the abyss between ourselves and the historical vagaries of 
Spain. Is it not time that these superficial points of view should 
give place to a very general and sincere desire to become 
acquainted with the real soul of the Spanish people? The 
possibility of any definite understanding and permanent recon- 
ciliation between peoples wholly different in language and 
traditions has been pessimistically viewed. Le genie des races 
s'y oppose, was the conclusion reached by a noted Frenchman. 
But since his day many a door has opened and many a dark 
avenue has been cleared for more intelligent international inter- 
course. Mankind has always erred; the past is not wholly 
flattering for any race or nation; the day must shortly dawn 
when mutual recriminations will cease and there can be a nobler 
exchange of the choice products of the spirits of all peoples. 

From this it must be apparent how great is the difficulty of 
reaching a fair estimate of all things Spanish. The deeper 
secrets of a foreign speech can hardly ever be wholly mastered ; 
the venerable codes of a different social organization cannot be 
grasped except after years of sympathetic investigation and 
contact. What way, then, lies open to one who desires to become 
acquainted with the Golden Age of Spain, with the sixteenth 
and seventeenth centuries, her peculiar glory in art and letters 
no less than in the political realm ? He must in reality set him- 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 239 

self but one problem from the outset, and that is to reconstruct 
the entire edifice of Spanish society of those times. No result 
which is separate from the lives of men and women has any 
vitality. Everything which interested them must interest the 
investigator : their daily speech in all its varieties, their employ- 
ments and tasks, however humble, what they felt and contrived, 
as well as the more tangible routine of their education. These 
must be the starting point. He can then hope to judge intelli- 
gently what their men of letters have set down, and glean from 
their peculiar interpretation of life what is of abiding value. 

The reconstruction of a society long gone by seems a large 
task; but ample indeed is the material both of the present and 
the past out of which we may fulfil our purpose. There are two 
general sources: the actual remains of older customs still to be 
observed in Spanish lands, and the records which speak to us in 
the streets of ancient towns and cities — in houses, churches, and 
convents — in printed books and unprinted material scattered 
through libraries and archives the world over. For manners of 
today which may throw light on the past we must, indeed, travel 
to remote places in order to become acquainted with them, as 
journeys through Chile and Ecuador no less than the byways 
of the Spanish Peninsula yield valuable results ; while the revela- 
tions of books and manuscripts may be sought with profit in 
practically all centers of learning. In all this the search is but 
commensurate with the name of Spain, which once reached the 
farthest corners of the earth. Not infrequently present and 
past become fused in a visit to some out of the way spot : there 
not only an unmarred exterior, an abandoned square, or pictur- 
esque patio, constitutes the setting for a past existence, but the 
very manners of the Golden Age may still be visualized from 
inherited costumes brought out on special occasions, from 
traditional festal dances, from ballads sung, from quaint local 
idioms, and conversations carried on at the public fount or in 
gatherings in the market-place. Incidentally the archives of 
some local convent library may tell of things which corroborate 
the inferences drawn from the life without its walls. The study 
of Spanish civilization would be a very romantic undertaking 
if it were all like this. But the amount of solid material thus 
gleaned is not always large, and a real insight into the details 



240 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

of Peninsular life is best obtained from the written testimony 
of Spain's chief men and women. 

When the reader has amassed his material, what picture of 
Spanish society can he reconstruct therefrom ? If I may presume 
to take you back so many years, you must first of all forget prac- 
tically everything which forms both the frame and content of 
society today; its facile communications, its newspapers and 
periodicals, its many comforts and luxuries, its infinite sanitary 
appointments looking to the health of the community, the general 
aspect of street or house, the varied costumes of men and women ; 
all these externals must be exchanged for a setting radically 
different if we desire to comprehend the Spaniard in his habit 
as he lived. 

Spanish life of the Golden Age would impress the modern 
reader more by its relative deprivations, its simplicity, than by 
those things which it enjoyed. Let us form a mental image for 
a moment of towns and cities isolated through the lack of any 
of our modern communications, or, if in touch with one another 
at all, only through courier and diligence, or burro and pedes- 
trian. And it will hardly be necessary to differentiate the life 
at the capital from that of less prominent provincial centers, 
since the average disadvantages entailed were common to all. At 
the beginning of the reign of Philip II Madrid was chosen as 
capital chiefly because of the brilliant idea that it was the 
mathematical center of the Peninsula, and that thus all the 
corners of Spain could be reached with equal celerity. Any news 
radiating from the capital could become known throughout 
Spain a few weeks later. We are thus dealing with an existence 
of circumscribed outer activities not to be confused with the 
intellectual life of which I shall speak later. 

My presentation of the daily routine must, of course, be 
inadequate and omit many minor details which, nevertheless, 
pertain to a carefully prepared canvas. 

First, what are the types of men and women whom we meet 
in the course of the day, what is their occupation or profession, 
what their dress, their speech; all matters which demand the 
most careful attention. With the rising sun, the great play- 
wright. Lope de Vega, tells us, the earth becomes arrayed in 
the Spanish colors, gold and red, and the first sound heard is 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 241 

that of the street-cleaners' carts which pass through the unpaved 
thoroughfares gathering all that has been thrown out upon them 
during the night. Then begin one after the other the cries of 
the various vendors who sell fruit, brandy, mannalade, buns, 
bread, and the like ; some carrying their wares, others setting up 
a stand on the street. Taverns and shops open, clothiers dis- 
play their garments, the apothecaries begin to clang their mor- 
tars, tradesmen of every description awaken while those who 
have an income remain abed. The greater part of the morning 
is devoted to the practical features of daily routine, which brings 
out our next group of types, the serving classes, the criados and 
criadas, who go to the market, or to the river to do their wash- 
ing, the lackeys and pages who run errands, to say nothing of 
the innumerable varieties of the under world, beggars and 
pioaros who live by their wits at the expense of those still asleep. 
But the bond of all society is the church service and this 
especially the women attend without fail. At the church door, 
therefore, we have ample opportunity to examine all the types 
from the humblest to the proudest, who arrive with coach and 
attendants. The women would all appear in severe black, the 
head covered with a velo, as the church demanded, lest worldly 
gazes mar their reverence and devotions. Nor would it be 
surprising to see some young gallant following a fair one to the 
service, as this offered one of the few opportunities of making 
his presence and interest known. 

As the morning advances life and movement in the streets 
increase, for the average Spaniard prefers to have the sky rather 
than a roof over his head. To see, to chat with acquaintances, 
to hear fresh news, to stroll in his favorite thoroughfare, to com- 
ment on current events, to enjoy every stimulant to a fuller 
existence, "to take the air, to take the sun," in short, to live, 
that is the question for him. For no nation is so singularly 
alert and intelligent. If the Spaniard always combined per- 
sistence and work with that rare power of give and take in 
mental exchanges he might well revive the spirit of the Con- 
quistadores and win a new realm of the mind as they conquered 
a new world. 

All cities and towns had their principal walks, either in a 
square or before a much frequented church, along some river 



242 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

or stream, or on some avenue filled with sun in the winter and 
affording shade in the summer. Here idlers were wont to saunter 
and exchange the latest gossip ; here was posted such intelligence 
as the government saw fit to publish; here appeared the 
announcement of a new play or a public entertainment. Some- 
times at the end of the morning, but especially in the late 
afternoon, depending on the season of the year, the popular 
thoroughfares were gradually filled with coaches of every 
description as the aristocracy and moneyed class slowly paraded 
their finery, receiving the homage of the less privileged. 

What could make life interesting on an intensive scale in a 
society practically incommunicate ? What could they talk about? 
What were their sources of information ? Numerous chronicles, 
memoirs, letters, despatches, and no less fiction and drama give 
us an infinite number of details regarding this matter. Within 
the city walls the world was much the same day after day, yet 
it is not evident that any community was ever bored. The 
occurrences of the vast outer world could become known only 
imperfectly and from time to time by means of brief proclama- 
tions, chance publications or individual letters, the contents of 
which were divulged and spread by word of mouth, acquiring 
proper coloring in the process. For many a family had a rela- 
tive in foreign parts occupied in the countless interests of the 
vast empire. Thus news came of the wars in Flanders, of the 
risings of the Protestant, the campaigns in Italy and against the 
Turk, of the raids of Barbary pirates on Spanish coasts, of heroic 
journeyings through unknown stretches of the New World. 

Manifestly the costumes worn by men and women in the 
picture which has passed before us include a vast array that 
would be impossible to describe were it not for the abundant 
help given by paintings, engravings, sumptuary laws, prag- 
matics, inventories, novels, and plays, to mention only a few of 
our sources. We are able to portray to ourselves in detail all the 
articles worn by the various classes of society, and even to get 
an insight into changing vogues in the length of cloaks, the forms 
of shoes, or the width of hats, to say nothing of laundry bills for 
the latest style in collars and cuffs. 

But all these figures would be but moving rows of magic 
shadow shapes were it not for their speech, and this is as varied 



SPECIAL LECTUEES 243 

as their type or occupation. The student is, therefore, face 
to face with an astonishing wealth in vocabulary and expression, 
a variety in wit and humor, a flexibility of phrase that has no 
superior in the world's languages. He must become acquainted 
with the rogue's jargon, or the kitchen-maid's syntax, no less 
than the chatter of the boudoir, or the artificial and stereotyped 
phrases of the courtier. He must cudgel his brains to solve the 
terms of the card-sharper as well as the flowery figures of the 
eulto poets. 

The question is frequently asked what type of literature 
resurrects the social and economic aspect of this world of the 
past in the most satisfactory manner, and with that necessary 
touch of warm blood. The answer must be that no single type 
affords a complete and reliable picture. Economic treatises were 
practically unknown. Histories are in general mere laudatory 
ex parte narratives, written to glorify the deeds and person- 
alities of princes or royalty, and only careful gleaning yields 
facts concerning the life of the people. Novels, poems, and 
dramas, while fullest of all in matters relating to the routine of 
bourgeois life, can nevertheless be exceedingly misinforming, 
because descriptions, episodes, and dialogue may be an imitation 
of an older writer and so render no image of contemporary 
manners. Romances such as the pastoral stories or the tales 
of chivalry, are an insincere form of literary art, for the life 
which they present is unreal and the language they speak could 
appeal to very few, while the imagination running riot in them 
deceives the reader, and takes him far from the matter-of-fact, 
everyday world. The other extreme is represented by the 
romances of roguery in which we have exaggerated realism pre- 
senting in pessimistic colors the shams or corruption of society. 
In them life is seen chiefly through the eyes of rogues and 
scoundrels who live by their wits at the expense of all the gullible 
members of society. And we are often dealing with perverted 
representations of fact, grotesque images of social evils, im- 
morality, and graft, intended to shock by their startling features 
as much as by their fidelity to actual conditions. In all of these 
the evidence must be carefully weighed. As regards the drama, the 
material is unspeakably vast, and throws light on every walk 
of life. But every estimate of the comedia and its interpreta- 



244 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

tion of Spanish life must take into consideration the artistic 
formula which it represents. The Spanish drama of the Golden 
Age is a poetic creation of the imagination, a pure work of art 
in which the representation of contemporary society was greatly 
modified by certain characteristics which do not reveal the 
nature of that society. Notably the great genius of a Lope de 
Vega created specific dramatic features of conspicuous effect 
upon the stage, both in episode and the drawing of character, 
clothing them in unsurpassed poetic beauty, but presenting 
therein either idealized or reformed manifestations of the 
Spanish world about him. The theatre, nevertheless, furnishes 
numerous precious details of the language of men and women, 
their costumes, their habits, their daily occupation, and interests. 
In short, to get at trustworthy conclusions we must let every 
type of literature act as a control of every other type ; especially 
the impressions drawn from works of the imagination must be 
corrected by the facts discovered in archives, letters, lawsuits, 
deeds of sale, foreclosures, dowry's inventories, last wills and 
testaments, and protocols covering all those intricate bequests, 
complaints, misdeeds and recriminations which men have always 
delighted to record before a notary. 

Thus far I have tried to present to you the outward aspect 
of Spanish society of the Golden Age. Let us now consider 
briefly the mental life of the community, together with some 
of the intellectual interests of the men and women. Among 
them none occupies so prominent a place as the pursuit of litera- 
ture. The appearance of a new book was, therefore, bound to 
become bruited about at once and not infrequently created a 
stir in the world of letters. If we take the statements of con- 
temporaries, the number of writers, especially of verse, was 
out of all proportion to the population. Lope tells us it seemed 
to rain poets. There were naturally many stimulants to this 
kind of activity; but nowhere was the field so extensive as in 
the national theatre, which combined entertainment and the art 
of poetry in a singularly happy way. It is impossible to speak 
of the number of playwrights or the long list of dramas written 
during the Golden Age without incurring the charge of exagger- 
ation. The lowest estimates not only make the productivity of 
the Age miraculous, but the enduring popularity of the comedia 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 245 

constitutes a shining tribute to the aesthetic appreciation of the 
Spanish people. Companies of actors spread the love of the 
theatre over the whole Peninsula, and few were the communities 
which did not enjoy some dramatic spectacles during the year. 
The greatest of all Spanish dramatic writers, Lope de Vega, 
is generally credited with more than fifteen hundred plays, of 
which about one-fourth have survived, and if we may make 
any inferences from his astonishing work alone the percentage 
of excellent creations must have been large. It is important to 
recall, moreover, that the drama which held the stage during 
the greater part of the Golden Age, was written in verse, that 
the language was often figurative, involved, and highly colored, 
that no author hesitated to introduce literary allusions, classic 
instances of all kinds, together with a display of wide erudition. 

Is not this unusual appreciation of a work of pure art worthy 
of the highest praise? Does it not constitute an admirable 
commentary on the intelligence of the common people who 
frequented the theatre ? Today we are obliged to ask with some 
perplexity what happy influence permitted such intense enjoy- 
ment of Shakespeare, of Moliere, of Lope de Vega, while we 
yawn over the best that our fathers have left to us? If it was 
the very limitations, the circumscribed life to which those com- 
munities of three hundred years ago were subjected, which 
blessed them with such a sincere devotion to one of our greatest 
literary arts, then the benetfis of civilization and progress have 
indeed exacted sacrifices to be deeply regretted. 

I spoke of the numerous references made on the stage to the 
classics. This was possible only because the world of the 
Eenaseence was still imbued with the spirit of the ancients; a 
genuine appreciation of the language and literature of Rome 
and Athens, a knowledge of their history, an acquaintance with 
their poets and philosophers, were still vital features of all 
higher education. The greatest thinkers of antiquity enjoyed 
an unassailable prestige, and however strange or biased might 
be the interpretation of their ideas their names were reverenced 
and widely known. Nor was Latin a dead language, since it 
continued in sermons and rituals, and in the academic centers 
it had no peer. This does not mean that the mass of the people 
were at home in the classic writings, for the substance of the 



246 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

latter became known through translations, through Renascence 
versions, through repeated references to their contents, which 
exerted a subtle influence on the thoughts of the average person. 

It would be misleading to give the impression that an ability 
to read was widespread. Indeed, only a very small percentage 
of the nation could write, and this applies not only to the lower 
classes but to the aristocracy ; for one comes upon the confession 
of the latter from time to time that their business was only war 
and arms and that the sword was to them more familiar than 
the pen. On the other hand, letters and the intellectual life were 
cultivated in the centers of learning and among the educated 
minority with an intensity and an earnestness of which we have 
no conception in our distraught world. It is impossible, there- 
fore, to speak of a reading public in our sense. A book was still 
an expensive object. To accumulate a library was beyond the 
means of the average man. Interesting or popular works were 
handed about among friends, as in the days of manuscripts ; and 
this accounts for the complete disappearance of many first 
editions of popular books. It would be futile to attempt to give 
any list of the most widely read productions : there were no best 
sellers in our sense, only from time to time a book ran through 
a number of editions in a year or a decade. The popularity of 
an author depended, therefore, then as now, on the class to 
which he appealed. There was a greater demand for books of a 
religious character than today because of the large portion of 
the population affiliated with church or monastery. Poetry, 
drama, history, miscellaneous compilations, were sought after; 
fiction was then as it is today likely to pass through several 
editions. 

In Spain, as in all countries, the world of letters is repre- 
sented by concrete names and specific master creations, and the 
lover of Spanish literature is at once attracted to the foremost 
writers of the Golden Age. I am often asked the question : has 
Spain any great literature ? To what is this question due ? To 
the fact that the phrase, Spain's Golden Age, has remained mean- 
ingless to us. I have tried to show that life in the Peninsula was 
intellectually and artistically on a very high plane; that men 
and women were intensely alive. It was, therefore, natural for 
the Spaniard to produce a body of literature conspicuous for its 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 247 

originality and wide range of form and content. I cannot begin 
to tell you of the many individual works unknown among us: 
great mystic spirits like San Juan de la Cruz, Santa Teresa, and 
Luis de Granada, whose writings show such high aesthetic and 
philosophic charm, are strangers to us; the long list of gifted 
playwrights, Lope, Alarcon, Tirso, Rojas, Moreto, Calderon, and 
others, is recited occasionally like a roster of superannuated 
names ; such poets as Garcilaso, Luis de Leon, Figueroa, Herrera, 
Ercilla, are remarkable no less for the variety of their style, 
their music, their unsurpassed technical skill, than the sincerity 
of their inspiration and the beauty and elevation of their 
thoughts. Yet these are unknown to us even through trans- 
lation. Francisco de Quevedo, scholar, philosopher, poet, satirist, 
and the foremost intellect of the day, was a great force in his 
time; but who amongst us has read his Sueiios, Visions of the 
hereafter, those mighty gripping comments on the spiritual and 
social Spain of the Renascence ? 

Among all these truly great names one stands out promi- 
nently, that of Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, spoken of by the 
whole world only as Cervantes. Indeed, it may be said that he 
occupies the stage by himself, completely overshadowing his 
great contemporaries. This is as unfortunate as it is unjust, and 
has given rise to such statements as that made by Montesquieu, 
to wit, that the only great book which the Spaniards possess, 
Don Quixote, ridicules all the rest. Spanish writers of the leist 
hundred years have been chiefly to blame for this estimate of 
Peninsular letters. The vast majority of critical or literary 
essays which have seen the light since Mayans attempted the 
first biography of Cervantes in 1737 have dealt only with the 
author of Don Quixote. This, however, does not mean that 
anjrthing definitive has been attempted regarding either his text, 
or a comprehensive aesthetic study of all that he has written. 
There have been, at long intervals, isolated works of great impor- 
tance, such as Navarrete's biography in 1819, the bibliography 
of Rius, and the hitherto unprinted documents published by 
Perez Pastor and Rodriguez Marin in more recent times. There 
have been editions of the writings of Cervantes, especially of 
the Don Quixote, with erudite commentaries and illuminating 
discussions of a thousand and one details; but in the large 



248 UNIVEBSITF OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

majority of these editions no fixed and acceptable principle has 
been pursued with regard to the text itself; frequently it is 
mere opinion that controls the editor's policy. Indeed, it is 
much easier to set down imaginary conclusions than the facts 
gleaned after years of painstaking labor. In so far as we are 
all bound to make mistakes in our judgment we must gratefully 
acknowledge all efforts, however modest, to push out the boun- 
daries of our imperfect human knowledge, but our criticism may 
be rightly directed against those over zealous lovers of Cervantes 
who have set him on a pedestal by himself to the prejudice of 
other great Spaniards ; who have fastened upon him such absurd 
designations as the prince of our geniuses, the king of our lan- 
guage, the only Cervantes; who have seen in him in turn an 
authority in various branches of learning, a great poet, a 
philosopher, and who have thereby thrown his simple and true 
greatness into a false light. Few national idols have suffered so 
greatly in the same way. In Spain these aesthetic vagaries have 
worked havoc in so far as they have focussed too much atten- 
tion on a single individual and prompted scores of jejeune or 
unscholarly minds to give utterance to eloquent essays in praise 
of one man, seemingly the only superior product of Spanish 
culture. In consequence we have no useable critical texts of 
Lope de Vega, whose vast production is one of the purest inspira- 
tions in Spanish literature; there is no worthy edition of the 
forceful satirist Francisco de Quevedo, one of the master minds 
of the whole European Renascence; there is practically not a 
single definitive edition of the many lyric poets, who form one 
of the chief glories of the Golden Age. The greatness of Cer- 
vantes would not have suffered if one-half of the efforts devoted 
to Don Quixote had been spent upon other works of his time. 
His achievement would then be seen in its true light, and the 
world would at the same time realize that he does not stand 
alone ; that he was possible only in an age which produced many 
other highly gifted men. Cervantes himself never laid claim to 
any endowment except that of literary inventiveness. The chil- 
dren of his fancy were the only objects of his solicitude. On his 
death-bed he wrote that beautiful passage in which he regrets 
only that he can compose no more of those figures to which his 
imagination had once given shape. "Farewell, jests! farewell, 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 249 

witty fancies ! farewell, my merry friends ! for I am dying and 
hope to see you soon contented in the next life. ' ' 

Grreat, indeed, are the obstacles encountered in investigating 
the lives of these rare men. It never seems to have occurred to 
them to tell us anything deliberately about their own careers. 
Biographies were still unknown. In Spain, moreover, an adverse 
fate seems to have determined on the destruction of an infinite 
number of treasures in libraries and archives which otherwise 
would have yielded much of the material we desire. In the case 
of Cervantes this is peculiarly so. Of the first twenty-one years 
of his life, precisely the formative period of his extraordinary 
gifts, we know absolutely nothing. We are tempted to infer 
many things from his own works, from the events of his time, 
and from the assertions of his contemporaries. But here facile 
criticism is too apt to go wrong, and gradually there have crept 
into his biography some interesting details that have no founda- 
tion in fact. Cervantes has a tantalizing way of mingling truth 
and fancy, history and fiction, autobiographical details with 
imaginary episodes, which leaves us guessing after these many 
years what the facts of his early career really were. Moreover, 
his own life surpassed, in unusual, varied experiences, anything 
that could be attempted in romance, making it frequently prob- 
able that the fanciful occurrences on which he dwells formed a 
part of his own recollections. This rare power of combining the 
life he lived with the world of his own creation made his writings 
one of the most illuminating documents of his age. 

In recent years, a number of assiduous seekers in Spanish 
archives have been very successful in discovering new material 
regarding the family of Cervantes, particularly the name and 
station of some of his more immediate relatives. Interesting as 
this is, how much more welcome would be a single letter or one 
personal document telling something of his life and of his 
associates; something about his own art. It is, of course, im- 
portant to know who his great grandfather was and where he 
resided, inasmuch as the locality in which a family originates 
may influence, if not wholly determine very peculiar gifts of the 
intellect. But in this case we are too often limited to a document 
which deals only with economic difficulties, with lawsuits of every 
description, broken contracts, and unpaid debts. If these strokes 



250 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

of misfortune can be inherited Cervantes may be said to have 
continued the traits of his forebears. He lived the career of a 
large number of very different characters. In his youth he was 
an adventurer in many parts of the world, and a brave soldier, 
terms often synonymous in those days. He was a captive among 
a piratical African people for five years, and several times 
clapped into jail by his own government; he was a wanderer 
in search of a bare livelihood the greater part of his later life ; 
he was socially, from all reliable indications, a man of very 
humble station, and withal a writer of immortal books. How 
could he achieve so much ? Simply because out of all his mani- 
fold experiences he absorbed the greatest conceivable grasp on the 
fullness of life. He lived unflinchingly all parts which fate and 
fortune obliged him to play, and retained their multiform im- 
pressions. He suffered and toiled, and did not succumb, but 
kept to the end of his life a sane cheerfulness of view. As an 
adventurer and soldier he must have met men of every walk of 
life, and acquired the universal character of his best work, those 
portrayals which make him belong to the literature of every 
people. As a slave and prisoner he learned that the freedom 
of the soul is our greatest heritage, and he developed wide 
sympathies for the sufferings and the shortcomings of all men. 
As a homeless wanderer with no social status to boast of, at a 
time when all preferment was dependent on the protection of 
the privileged class, he trained himself in his own phrase, to 
* * patience in adversity. " To be sure, so much experience might 
have served him but little if Nature had not endowed him with 
an unusually clear vision ; a unique faculty of assimilating what 
he saw; a gift of distinguishing the essentials of life from those 
which do not make the soul of a man ; a power of topping For- 
tune 's favors with a sense of humor and of proportions; and 
with a pleasing aesthetic balance which permitted his spirit to 
attain the mellowness and maturity of old age, while yet wearing, 
at the same time, the coronal of perpetual youth. 

How is this rarest of narrators related to the social life which 
was outlined above? His pages are unquestionably the most 
satisfactory record preserved for us; his canvas, of enormous 
proportion, embraces it all: the richness and comprehensiveness 
of its portraitures have never been surpassed. Were it not for 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 251 

the career of the man it would be difficult to understand how 
he could grasp so much humanity. All the phases and interests 
of Spanish society have their just and adequate share in the 
painting. And herein lies the simple and enduring greatness of 
the art of Cervantes : he has known how to make these pictures 
real and unfading to all mankind ; the creatures of his fancy are 
understood and admired far beyond the confines of Spain her- 
self. His contemporaries, Lope de Vega and Francisco de 
Quevado, have far excelled him in some peculiar gifts: the one 
in his varied poetic vein, his magical powers of improvization ; 
the other in depth of thought, in incisive and pungent satire of 
social vices and vagaries. But the work of neither has the wide 
applicability, the serene vision, the simplicity of process and 
the aesthetic sincerity attained by the greatest pages of Cer- 
vantes. 

Detailed study of these pages manifestly goes hand in hand 
with an equally scrupulous analysis of his time. The variety of 
language which he employs is very taxing; the provinces over 
which he carries us, and the customs which he delineates embrace 
all those manifold distinctions brought about by the successive 
influences of foreign cultures on the civilization of the Spanish 
Peninsula. If we wish to view the South sympathetically, to 
appreciate fully Spanish life there even today we must bear in 
mind the results of centuries of contact of Spaniard and Moor, 
the distinctive blending of phases of both civilizations, manifest 
no less in the racial traits of men and women, in their spiritual 
and mental attitudes, in the routine of their lives, than in the 
songs they sing or the dwellings they have raised. If we desire 
to find nothing inexplicable in the North, the characteristics of 
climate and landscape, the varying fortunes of political history, 
both local and national, the effects of native institutions, the 
admixture of northern rather than oriental influence, all these 
merit consideration. And likewise for every part of Spain. To 
this larger aspect of his native land Cervantes applied his gift 
for details, presenting what he saw with that sympathy which 
he had acquired during his long wanderings. His attitude of 
mind toward what he visualizes is, therefore, not unintelligibly 
provincial, it has made him, as it did no other writer, a universal 
voice. 



252 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

"When Cervantes returned from his military campaign in 
Italy and from captivity in Algiers he was in his thirty-fourth 
year. The indications are that he always had the ambition to 
accomplish something in the world of letters. Upon entering 
the capital, Madrid, he seems to have formed the resolution 
definitely of exchanging the sword for the pen. To any gifted 
man the intense intellectual activities of the literary coteries 
must have held out irresistible attractions, and for a number of 
years immediately following his return Cervantes may be identi- 
fied with the life of the court city. But in studying the growth 
of his mind, his singular gifts, it is noteworthy that his literary 
efforts during the years under consideration, up to his fortieth 
year, do not venture out of the established order of things. He 
is apparently actuated by the same ambitions which filled those 
about him, to write for the stage, to continue the pastoral vein, 
above all to compose verse and be counted as a poet. Curiously 
enough, his attitude of mind toward expressions of literature for 
which he had only slight gifts, was never abandoned by him. 
Even after he had found himself, and was giving undying 
expression to an original vein of narrative he still yearned to 
write as others did, to continue his pastoral attempts, to win 
success in the theatres — in short to write poetry which might 
compete with such great lyric geniuses as Lope, Gongora, the 
Argensolas, Quevedo, and many others. Nor did he fail to 
recognize his inferiority in this form of expression, that verse 
was not his proper medium, for on one occasion he laughingly 
admits that a bookseller had told him that much was to be 
expected from his prose, but from his poetry nothing; and in 
the Journey to Far^mssus he says, not without a touch of regret 
and disillusionment: 

I must ever toil and keep vigil 

That I may seem to have of the poet 

Those gifts with which Heaven did not favor me. 

Sound criticism must, therefore, admit that all of Cervantes' 
early efforts, his occasional verse, his Oalai&a, and the little that 
we have of his drama, are of interest only in so far as they 
contain germs of his great creations, the Novels and the Don 
Quixote; in so far as they reveal a growth of his art. In any 
other sense they are mere literary curiosities. 



SPUCIAL LECTURES 253 

Posterity has decreed, and rightly so, that only his Exemplary 
Novels and Dmi Quixote may be placed among the world's master 
works. Few, indeed, today are the readers of his Numantia, his 
Persiles, his Galatea. On the other hand his Don Quixote has 
reached an incredibly large number of editions; it has been 
translated into more languages than any other book except the 
Bible; it has never been denied its unique place. What drew 
Cervantes out of a commonplace career and caused him to write 
in his old age a book that has delighted innumerable readers? 
His literary ventures had not raised him above his associates, and 
without fame or income, he saw himself obliged to cope once 
more with prosaic realities, privation, suffering; to bear the 
whips and scorns of time, the oppressor's wrong, the proud 
man's contumely, which manifested itself in the insolence of 
office and in the spurning of patient merit. For many years he 
saw himself forced to fulfill tasks which to us at least could not 
be more uncongenial. As government employee with an insig- 
nificant daily wage he journeyed over Spain, and in his irksome 
rounds stored up those infinite details of the inner as well as the 
outer life of the men and women made immortal in his narrative. 
In Madrid he had remained more or less an imitator; in the 
great world he found himself without a model, and there matured 
in his brain not only a novel conception of the art of fiction, but 
a number of living creations, episodes, and descriptions which 
few have dared to imitate and none have equalled. But not all 
original works are enduring, nor are they at once recognized in 
their full meaning. It was so with Cervantes. Lope de Vega 
expressed himself tartly by saying that no one would be so 
absurd as to laugh over Don Quixote. Whole hearted and 
intelligent praise of the work only found a voice as time went on. 

It is not my intention here to speak in detail of Cervantes' 
master work. Few books have received so much praise from 
readers of all nationalities, a thing all the more to be wondered 
at if the obstacles to its fullest enjoyment be taken into con- 
sideration : the defects of a wretchedly printed first edition, our 
only criterion; the textual difficulties of many a passage; con- 
stant allusions to books which inspired him, or to people and 
events long forgotten ; absence of plan ; and carelessness of style. 
To them must be added the occasional confusion caused by com- 



254 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

mentators who disagree and cloud the issue by injecting into it 
their own personalities. But the great and enduring worth of 
Don Quixote is apparent at once to all who read the book intelli- 
gently. Although the work has something in it to please readers 
of every age, young or old, as Cervantes himself asserted, saying 
that it is thumbed and read and got by heart by people of all 
sorts; although children turn its leaves, and young people read 
it, the grown up understand it and old folks praise it, still it is 
essentially a book for a mature mind. It is one of those rare 
works in which are felt the depth, the beauty, and the pathos of 
all human endeavor. It pronounces all struggle noble ; it teaches 
us in a genuine Renascence spirit to despise death while relishing 
life, *'d mepriser la mort en savourant la vie;" to set the 
philosophy of self forgetfulness and cheerful persistence above 
unprofitable introspection and melancholy inaction. It lays 
more stress on an idealized world within our dreams than on the 
brutal facts that hold us to the ground; it demonstrates that a 
broken spear or rusty helmet and a feeble arm need not deter 
an unconquerable spirit. In short, it is a book which gives 
courage, which ennobles, which teaches us to greet the unseen 
with a cheer. In this sense no other book is so fine a classic ; no 
book can be re-read so often. Saint Beuve, whom one delights to 
quote, has said, ''Perhaps there will come an age when nothing 
more will be written. Happy are those who read and re-read, 
those who unhindered can follow their own inclinations in their 
reading. There comes a season of life, when, all journeys over, 
and all experiences realized, there is no deeper joy than to 
examine and to dwell upon what one knows, to relish what one 
feels, like seeing again and again the people one loves. It is 
thus that the word classical acquires its real meaning, that it 
can be defined for a person of culture as the inevitable choice of 
what he loves best. The reader's taste has become mature, it is 
formed and definite. At that time of life one no longer desires 
to make experiments, nor sally forth on voyages of discovery. 
One clings to those friends whom long intercourse has tested. 
Old wine, old books, old friends": among these, one may add, 
Don Quixote has a secure place. 

The book has for us foreigners an even greater meaning if 
we connect it with the civilization of the Spanish people ; if we 



SPECIAL LECTURES 255 

let it become their voice among us; if it can throw light on a 
nation to which we have not given all the serious study and 
sympathy it deserves. There is in D(yn Quixote a vein running 
through the whole which may be characterized as the spirit of 
cheerfulness; the Spaniards themselves might call it el genio 
alegre. It is neither frivolous nor superficial, for it is associated 
with the deeepst and most abiding trait in the Spanish character, 
that willingness to be reconciled to all the tragic disillusionments, 
the unfulfiled ambitions which constitute human life. But, as 
in Dmi Quixote buoyancy, good humor, and laughter offset the 
defeats to which the hero finds himself subjected, so in the 
character of the Spaniard abides a virile genio alegre. 

From this we have much to learn, the spirit which leavens 
all being. We should study not only the outward signs of 
Spanish civilization, not only its conquests, its institutions, 
together with their evils and failure ; we should also seek out the 
soul of the people, and appreciate their vie intime. We need 
in our lives the balance-wheel of a point of view wholly different 
from our own. You may recall that Shakespeare has Sir Toby 
ask the puritan Malvolio: "Dost thou think, because thou art 
virtuous, there shall be no more cakes and ale?" Shall we, 
self-satisfied, surrender our souls to relentless material progress, 
to the grinding activities of commercialism, to the search for 
gain, unrequited by the gifts which permit us to enjoy the 
results ? Shall we know nothing of the relaxation demanded by 
the mind in order to relish things of the mind? I do not plead 
for the spirit which calls for the ''pipe and bowl and fiddlers 
three," but for the principle that nature, art, great books, the 
intellectual inheritance of mankind, in other words, the elements 
of existence which afford light and beauty, be more widely fos- 
tered. The Latin races, especially Spaniards and Italians, have 
never unlearned the great need of leisure to enjoy these things. 
And we have been wont to think of the Spaniard a little too 
often as much inclined to the attractions of manana; we have 
interpreted idleness of all kinds as so much waste of precious 
time to be invested only in material gain. There is a happy 
mean which we could well acquire by combining the point of 
view of both the Spanish and American people. Progress, and 
visible, ostentatious well-being may be tempered by a love of 



256 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

human intercourse not based solely on bartering our commodi- 
ties; they may be enriched by the enjoyment of stimulating 
conversation, and the appreciation of what the imagination of 
man has achieved. This is the balance-wheel we need in our 
dizzying form of existence; to acquire a genio alegre, to relish 
the gifts of life, to mingle its serious and commonplace features 
with sweetness and light. This is imperative to make living at 
all worth while. For in the words of Cervantes "men cannot 
be forever occupied with business however important it may be. 
There are hours of recreation in which the harassed spirit may 
repose: for this purpose avenues are planted, fountains are 
sought after, slopes are levelled, and gardens cultivated with 
devotion. ' ' Cervantes may thus well be the interpreter to us of 
the soul of the Spanish people. He may point the way that will 
lead us not merely to sordid mercantile associations with Spain 
and Spanish America, but to a finer understanding of what their 
language and literature have produced. In Cervantes we shall 
always have a striking example of a man who, though destined 
to eke out a livelihood in soul racking daily routine still found 
time to pen the most comprehensive and entertaining picture of 
his f ellowmen. After all, it is a question with us of looking up 
now and then from our tasks to behold the stars. There is always 
something bigger, something better than the matter at which we 
are laboring. We are not betraying any trust if we put off 
just enough of our toil for tomorrow to enable us to enjoy an hour 
of the best of today: old wine, old books, old friends, some 
treasure we have been privileged to store up for that end. In 
all this Cervantes can speak to us most convincingly out of his 
enduring wisdom, his simple humanity. 



SPECIAL LECTURES 257 



JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU AND THE RENAISSANCE 
OF MORAL INTUITION 

Professor Charles Cestre 

of the University of Bordeaux 

Jean Jacques Rousseau has been of late the butt of hostile 
critics, who object to him in the name of dogmatic religion, 
dogmatic classicism, or dogmatic philosophy. They all stand 
for authority, whether in the reabn of belief, of politics, or of 
thought. So far as law, even rigid law, stands as a necessary 
element of man 's thought, artistic expression, or action the critics 
are right and their rebuke justified. But they are ruthless and 
bloodthirsty: they do not mean only to point out shortcomings, 
they will wipe out a dangerous opponent. For them Rousseau 
is the arch-fiend who introduced into religion the doctrine of the 
inner light and of the spontaneous ascent of the soul toward 
the higher realities, into literature the preeminence of the ego, 
the free play of passion and of fantasy into morals and politics, 
the new force of sentiment, and the irresistible aspiration to 
happiness. Barring out Rousseau's splendid achievement as a 
novelist, as the introducer of natural description and lyric 
emotion into prose writing, as the promoter of political progress 
and social advancement, as a master of literature, and the fore- 
runner of the French Revolution, they heap upon him the 
responsibility for all the vagaries which have marred some forms 
of romanticism and disgraced some developments of the revolu- 
tionary spirit. 

My intention is not to rehabilitate the character of Rousseau 
as an individual. His acts were often singularly at odds with 
his doctrine. There is no vindicating some of his private doings. 
His is clearly a case where genius is strangely dissociated from 
personal dignity and even balance of mind in the daily walk of 
conduct. But that genius which produced L'Emile and Le 
Contrat Social and a dozen other masterpieces deserves to be 
recognized, accorded justice, and accredited for the great bene- 



258 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

ficial novelties that it introduced into the world. Let Rousseau's 
worth be attributed primarily, if you will, to the fact that he 
expressed the thought of his time ; let him be praised mostly as 
the exponent of the surging forces of thought, feeling, and con- 
science that must needs then have found a channel. There remains 
the fact that he was the inspired medium of that current of ideas 
and, as such, entitled to careful and sympathetic study. 

Rousseau was the heir to a twofold movement of intellectual 
tendencies that had been gathering strength ever since the advent 
of Christianity, through the fruitful period of the Revival of 
Learning, when the best of ancient thought had vitalized the 
most precious legacy of the Middle Age, and through the seven- 
teenth and eighteenth centuries, when exact science and the 
science of nature made such rapid progress. The influences that 
he received from the past and from his own period may be 
defined by the terms humanism and naturalism. Humanism 
was the final overpowering triumph of human reason over the 
forces of prejudice, blind tradition, authority, conformity, and 
willing obedience. The intellect, in possession of sure methods 
of research and reasoning, confident in the existence of human 
truth in reference to moral and social problems, set itself reso- 
lutely to work out a new conception of the universe, and to 
reshape the relations of man to man and of man to things. 

In this overhauling of the whole scheme of life, the claims 
of the physical elements of our nature were not overlooked. A 
novel sense asserted itself of the importance of man's inclina- 
tions, aspirations, and passions, either with regard to the outside 
world, or to society, or to the welfare of the individual : this was 
the new doctrine of naturalism. Conformably to the naturalistic 
standpoint, satisfaction to the yearnings of sentiment, the 
intellect, or the conscience was no longer to be sought in the 
other world, beyond the tomb, but, to use the words of "Words- 
worth (who is, like Rousseau, representative of the new mode 

of thought) : 

in this very world, 

Which is the world of all of us, where we 
Find our happiness or not at all. 

This trust in human reason and this belief in the promise 
of the world were backed by a powerful force of emotionalism 



SPECIAL LECTUSES 259 

which had risen with the ascent of the plebeian class. Although 
still under political and social oppression the masses in France 
had become alive to their importance in the state and to their 
prerogatives as human persons. They were no longer passive 
and resigned, but conscious and eager to emerge. Rousseau rep- 
resented this plebeian aspiration, with all the emotional impetus 
that accompanied it. This groundswell of ancient passion, put 
to the service of the acquired knowledge and creative originality 
of his self-taught, impressionable mind, accounts for the genius 
and the influence of Rousseau. 

His mental and sentimental energy was especially applied to 
the awakening of a new moral consciousness, which was the 
motive power of the French Revolution and of all the progress 
that that great event was to set astir in the world. 

Here, objections will not fail to be raised. How can we speak 
of ''moral consciousness" in reference to a man who was 
notoriously incapable, himself, of moral behavior, properly so 
called ? Indeed, we must not look to Rousseau for any strength-- 
ening of the traditional rules of morality that had for ages past 
acted on men 's minds as a curb and a restraining power. Rousseau 
did not ignore the precepts of Christian ethics which exert them- 
selves in human action through inhibition, interference; but he 
knew them only as they aroused remorse in him after his too 
frequent lapses into self indulgence. His particular contribution 
was to awake that form of moral intuition which we may term 
expansive, which calls forth the vital forces to eager, buoyant, 
and joyous action. His conception of conduct was essentially 
dynamic ; his appeal was especially apt to bring to being a new 
social force, the collective conscience. 

Some persons in my audience may demur at recognizing in 
Rousseau a devotee of progress. Was not he the author of the 
two famous Discourses, that tended to prove that the arts and 
the sciences had caused mankind to degenerate and had actually 
closed the avenues to happiness? Here we have first to remem- 
ber that Rousseau was a great paradox monger. He, first of the 
moderns, resorted to that well known literary device (so much 
used and abused today) of taking the reader by surprise, and 
compelling attention by emphatically stating the counterpart 
of generally accepted ideas. When he wrote the Discourses (his 



260 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

two maiden productions as a writer), he consciously rushed into 
paradox to startle his contemporaries. But in every paradox 
there is a part of truth. Rousseau was already impelled by 
his vocation to play the moralist. The Discourses, rightly 
interpreted, mean: Because men have cultivated the arts and 
the sciences with a mere view to material improvement (to secure 
comforts, enjoyments, luxury) , neglecting the moral issues 
(purity of heart, intensity and sincerity of feeling, simplicity, 
and temperance), they have failed to reach happiness. 

The necessary conclusion was (as we find it actually stated 
in many a passage) : Do away with your commercialism, your 
artificiality, your perfect but inhumane knowledge; return to 
nature, and you will be safe ! 

Closely connected with that denunciation, not of civilization 
tout court but of soulless civilization, we come across his famous 
theory of the state of nature. Here again, objectors will be 
found to point the irreconcilable opposition of this theory with 
any sound notion of progress. But Rousseau's etat de nature 
has to be interpreted in correlation with his whole work. The 
skit of Voltaire: "M. Rousseau gives us a violent desire to walk 
on all fours, ' ' is delightful, but very misleading irony. Rousseau 
stated time after time that he did not wish his contemporaries 
to return to savageness. What he advocated was what we call 
today the simple life. It happened that the minds of men in 
his day were much engrossed by the relations of the Jesuit 
Fathers of northern America and believed in the descriptions 
of ''les hons sauvages," which they read in those books. Rous- 
seau laid hold of this fiction, which suited his purpose and was 
sure to appeal to the imagination of his readers, and created a 
myth, as so many poets and initiators of great doctrines had 
done before him. L'etat de nature stands in his work as the 
"Golden Age" in ancient fable, the "Earthly Paradise" in 
Christian mythology, the myths of Plato, "universal goodness" 
in Christian Science. 

Therefore, there is no inner contradiction in the work of 
Rousseau that prevents us from considering him essentially as 
a moralist and an advocate of progress. We shall proceed now 
to set forth what seems to us to have given special force to his 
work to promote a revival of moral intuition. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 261 

The most banal remark that may be expressed concerning 
Eousseau is that he stands as the first thorough, ardent, and 
impassioned individualist. It is as a worshiper of the ego that 
he sought the thrill of love and became a great painter of human 
passions. It is, again, as an individualist that he pondered over 
his own sentiments and aspirations, analyzed his yearning for the 
beautiful, the great and the good, and became an eloquent ex- 
ponent of moral intuition. He discovered in his consciousness 
(whether because placed there by the divine will, or because of 
his Christian education, or because of his humanistic culture, or 
of his idealism as a simple man, a man of the people, I will not 
enquire) a natural desire for all noble things and an aspiration 
toward the Supreme Good, that contains them all. 

"S'il n'y a rien de moral dans le coeur de I'homme, d'cm lui 
viennent done ces transport, d'admiration pour les grandes dmes? 
Get enthousiasme pour la vertu, quel rapport a-t-il avec natre 
inter et privef" 

He felt deeply the full uplifting force of enthusiasm ; in the 
intense workings of the human heart he discovered the chief 
source of generous, powerful, superhuman action. 

"II n'y a que les dmes de peu qui sachent comhattre et vaincre. 
Tous les grands efforts, toutes les actions suhlimes sont leur ouv- 
rage. La froide raison n'a jamais new fait d'illustre ..." 

His moral fervor under the influence of his early associations 
naturally took the bent of religious adoration. His admiration 
for the all-beautiful and the all-loveable expanded into the divine. 
He thought and felt suh specie infinitudinis : he saw God. 

"Nous ne savons pas ce qu'il est, mais nous savons qu'il est. 
Que cela nous suffice ..." 

Every one has present in his memory the famous apostrophe 
in Emilius: "Conscience! Conscience, divine instinct!" In 
the presence of Nature with its uncountable and unaccountable 
beauties, in the heightening of vital and mental energy that is 
brought to us by the keen bracing air of the forest, crested 
mountain, the Vicaire Savoyard had a sudden insight of the 
mystery and the unity of Being. He was no longer urged, like 
Descartes, to utter a syllogism, "Je pense, done je suis," but an 
affirmation risen from the depths of his soul, "Je suis." This 
primal expression of the fact of life contains, as he perceives 



262 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

in a flash of soul illumination, not only physical existence but 
the nobleness of the heart and the spiritual Substance that 
accounts for both. 

Self -consciousness and self-assertion, then, in Rousseau's doc- 
trine, apply to the higher forms of being, which in the feeling 
and thinking animal, that man is, are of moral and spiritual 
quality. Rousseau, taking cognizance of his soul, in a moment of 
clearer inward vision (which the mystics of old called "ecstasy") 
interprets this revelation in terms of ethics. As his age, the 
heir of ages of thought and of collective progress, was mostly 
concerned with social problems, it is mostly in the social line 
that his ethics will develop. 

Here we see the feeling of sympathy intervening both to 
limit and to guarantee the aspirations of individualism. The 
acute sense of being, with all its moral offshoots, inspires the 
individual with the desire of securing for himself the physical, 
moral, and social means of welfare. Persevering in his being, 
nay, ascending to better being becomes his aim, the locus of his 
exertions in society. The normal individual, neither cramped 
by oppression nor corrupted by pride of place, will feel that 
his fate is indissolubly linked with that of the other individuals 
who live with him in the city or in the state. This feeling, 
interpreted by his reason, will call forth in his mind respect for 
others, a wish to cooperate, a ready willingness to grant to 
fellow citizens due scope to work and to act provided the same 
advantage is guaranteed to him. 

These ideas were not new: they form the substance of the 
speculation of Plato; but they had never been conceived with 
such universality and such uncompromisingness of abstraction ; 
nor had they ever been expressed at a time when the m.inds of 
men were so ready to welcome them. The feelings in which 
they originated were not ncAv: recognition of the dignity of the 
human person and advocacy of brotherly love among men had 
been the teaching of Christianity for sixteen centuries ; but now 
the Christian ideal was to be realized here below, no longer post- 
poned till the disembodied soul had flown far away from this 
world. 

In fact, Rousseau's mental procedure consists in an organic 
working of both intuition and the intellect. Intuition provides 



SPECIAL LECTURES 263 

the motive power : the intellect sets the aim to the aspirations of 
the heart and the imagination. Rousseau conceived and uttered 
for the first time clearly and eloquently the notion of right as 
attached to the sacredness of the human person, and the notion 
of justice, as referring to the mutual relations of individuals 
within the boundary of the state. These are ideas, formed by 
the intellect, evolved by means of reasoning, resting upon a 
logical sequence of propositions, and leading to a conclusion that 
satisfies the craving of the mind for consistent truth. They 
are the outcome of the effort, sustained for twenty-four cen- 
turies by the laboring elite of thoughtful men who gradually 
conceived the means of raising mankind from servile subserv- 
ience to force, upward to a more and more perfect conception 
of political and social law, opening a wider and wider outlook 
to the masses. They set up the notion of artificial society, of 
a scheme of collective life no longer entirely submitted to prece- 
dent, historical necessity, and the harsh durance of conquest, 
but derived according to the requirements of reason, enforced 
by the will, countenanced by the consent of all. This is the 
theme of the Contrat Social, which is the work of a logician, 
trained in the school of Descartes, and of a humanist trained 
in the tradition of Plato and the ancients. We could expect no 
less from a man who began by belonging to the group of the 
Encyclopaedists, and separated from them (after the '^revela- 
tion" of Vincennes) not so much because he swerved from their 
conclusions as because he wished to emphasize his own personal 
and original way of reaching those conclusions. 

His personal and original contribution to the philosophy 
which was to bring about the great upheaval of the French 
Revolution is the appeal to sentiment and imagination, his trust 
in the conscience ; in other words, the revival of moral intuition. 
At the same time that he furnished the guiding principles of 
the new ideal he provided it with impetus ; he breathed into the 
hearts of his generation the dynamic feeling that was to renovate 
the world, the spirit of revolt. Assuredly the spirit of revolt 
has its dark side. The terrible vicissitudes through which 
Prance was to pass before reaching a noble form of republican 
and democratic government is a proof of it. It has left in our 
orderly, lawful, regulated democracy dangerous ferments, which 



264 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

may go even as far as the spirit of anarchy. But Rousseau 
must not be made responsible for the excesses and vagaries of 
individualism any more than for the eccentricities and dissolving 
ingredients of romanticism. The new sense of the "eminent 
dignity of the human person" and the new principle of "justice 
in the relations among men," supported as they were by a 
powerful elan of the conscience, were great moral forces, akin 
to the spiritual forces that had been thus far the mainstay of 
religion. A new religion was founded : the religion of humanity. 
Kant recognized as much when, in the first phase of his 
mental development, he became the enthusiastic disciple of Rous- 
seau. The stimulus which he received from the initiator of the 
moral revival of the eighteenth century accounts, in great part, 
for the moralizing view of his philosophy in later periods. From 
Rousseau he learned, not only as an illuminating concept but as a 
living inspiration, that conscience was djnaamic and that noble 
enthusiasm might become the source of the greatest actions. 
Of course, this tribute to the natural nobleness of man's soul 
does not constitute the whole of Kant's ethics: he was later on 
to lay stress on the binding injunction of the categorical im- 
perative. But he retained his faith in the power of moral beauty 
and the pure joy of well-doing. There is such a thing as a 
passion for devotion and sacrifice; loving kindness can inspire 
the noblest acts of service; altruism is often the source of hero- 
ism; collective emotion, among generous peoples, can lead to an 
habitual practice of disinterestedness and humanity. Here again 
let us quote Wadsworth : 

We live by Admiration, Hope and Love. 

The mention of Kant's indebtedness to Rousseau recalls an- 
other moral field where the German philosopher (at a time when 
there was a great German philosophy) followed in the footsteps 
of the French thinker: the field of the international relations 
of nations. Kant's Proposal for Perpetual Peace is the work- 
ing out of Abbe de Saint Pierre's book on that subject and of 
Rousseau's revision of the same {Examen du Projet de I'Ahhe 
St. Pierre). 

In Rousseau's mind the idea of justice dealt to the citizens 
of a nation was, logically and as a natural consequence of his 
moral idealism, to expand into the idea of a legal status regu- 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 265 

lating the relations between nations. A nation, viewed from the 
moral standpoint (which, according to the dictates of the new 
morality, ought to prevail over the conception of brute force) 
is essentially the aggregate of the individual consciences, a col- 
lective person, a higher soul. It rests upon a physical basis, 
namely, the necessary conditions of geographical unity, historical 
growth, racial and linguistic characteristics; but it lives, finds 
its being as well as its conscience, in the commonalty of feelings, 
aspirations, and ideals, in the memory of joys or trials jointly 
experienced in the past, in the conjunction of wills and the co- 
operation of minds. When the nation should possess those 
spiritual forces it would have rights and be entitled to its share 
of justice, whether great or small, powerful or weak. Respect 
for a moral entity must not be meted out in proportion to its 
size, the number of its citizens, or its military strength. It is 
due, in reason and in equity, to the contribution that it brings 
to the sum total of civilizing influences in the world. Civiliza- 
tion is the joint work of nations, just as the national ideal is 
the joint work of citizens. Diversity is a necessary element of 
universal progress, for no race has a monopoly of creative genius. 
Therefore, great nations ought to spare, and support, and do 
justice to small states. 

Rousseau was no Utopian, as his adversaries represent him. 
He did not wholly deal in abstractions. Though his aim was 
to formulate principles that would hold good for the whole of 
mankind, he knew how to introduce modalities in his doctrine 
according to the variations of circumstances, and to respect the 
stern lessons of facts. With reference to the possible appli- 
cation of the ''social compact" and the enforcement of the 
institutions meant to give supremacy to the "general will" he 
wrote : 

^'L'homme est un; mcds I'homme modifie par les religions, 
par les gouvernements, par les lois, par les coutumes, par les 
prejuges, par les climats, devient different de lui-meme, que, de 
notre temps, il faut se contenter de chercher a qui est hon pour 
tel ou tel pays." And again : 

"Toutes les formes de gouvernement ne conviennent pas a 
tous les pays. La Liherte n'est pas le fruit de tous les climats, 
et n'est pas a la portee de tous les peuples. Plus on reflSchit sur 



266 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

le principe etabli par Montesquieu, mieux on se rend compte de 
sa verite: II n'a jamais exist e, il n' existence jamais de demo- 
cratie ahsolue." 

He applied the same sanity of judgment to the question of 
international relations. Abbe de St. Pierre had called on the 
great nations to form a Council of Peace, that should settle their 
differences, compromise their clashing, interests, and organize 
some sort of international order by mutual agreement. Rousseau 
clearly saw that so much reasonableness and moderation was not 
to be expected from the kings of that time, who railed at phil- 
osophers, or (like Frederick of Prussia) sported with their Vol- 
taires until they made ready to gobble them up. He advocated 
a league of the small nations, which, because of their weakness, 
would be sincere wishers for and supporters of peace. Their 
combination could counterweight the military strength of one 
great grabbing nation, and possible diplomatic alliances, now 
with one, now with the other, M^ould gradually make wars more 
risky. A new balance of power, making for peace, would be 
struck. It would no longer pay to wage war. Thus a desire 
for peace would by degrees spread abroad, not because ambitious 
potentates and conquerors would suddenly turn into lambs but 
because certain parts of the world would, as it were, be neutral- 
ized (here we see the idea of "neutrality" take its rise) and 
peaceful dispositions make more and more headway. 

Nor did Rousseau believe in any sudden flourishing of inter- 
national amity or indulge in the hope of a nearby emhrassement 
general. "With characteristic psychological penetration and be- 
lief in the efficacy of the feelings, he wanted to keep the great 
force of patriotism as the great unifying power for a given group 
of men. How, he said, were Europeans to feel friendly for 
Asiatics whom they did not know and could not even physically 
picture to their minds? The same remark was true even of 
Europeans among themselves. Internationalism, as a feeling, 
was an impossibility: it rested on no concrete reality. It would 
take long before it could lay hold of men 's judgment and imagi- 
nation with sufficient intensity to supply the lack of the emo- 
tional bond. Therefore, he considered it as a self-evident truth 
that patriotism should thrive, but that it should be enlightened 
patriotism, patriotism that should conciliate itself with a broad 
love of humanity. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 267 

Patriotism does not mean a brutal outburst of collective 
passion, with the accompaniment of national selfishness, greed, 
and will to power. Patriotism, akin to filial feeling, must also 
be colored by gentleness of disposition, the worship of the nobler 
national virtues, and attachment to the humane universal prin- 
ciples taught by reason. There is an intellectual, as well as an 
intuitive element, in patriotism. The modern love of country — 
in contradistinction to the mere gregariousness of the clan — 
ought to be both a spontaneous feeling and an outcome of culture. 
Here, as always in the work of Rousseau, we find a close union 
and parallel working of the intellect and of intuition. 

As Rousseau was the true exponent of the ideas of right and 
political justice, he is the veritable initiator of the idea of inter- 
national law. The revival of moral intuition, with him, extends 
beyond the individual, the city and the state, even to the limits 
of the earth, in a majestic vision of future progress for the 
entirety of mankind, when education, intellectual advancement, 
softening of manners, and general predominance of reason have 
made the first steps to such a wonderful consummation possible. 

How flat falls the objection of Rousseau's opponents, that 
he emphasized the "rights" of men, overlooking their "duties." 
Does it not appear clearly from his doctrine that the individual 
in order to practice justice, and the nation, in order to obtain 
the guarantee of international law, must practice self-restraint, 
curtail their appetites, limit their ambitions, keep down the truc- 
ulence and exuberance of the ego, master their instincts ; in other 
words, pass from the state of brutal primitiveness to the state 
of civil polity? This state of orderly behavior, mutual respect, 
moderate desires, peaceful dispositions, and voluntary submission 
to just law, is precisely what Rousseau called "nature," not 
savageness, but the true sanity and purity of polite society, free 
from the oppression and purged from the corruptions which he 
saw rampant around him. 

How unreservedly we are entitled to appreciate this discipline 
born of reason and gentleness, noble idealism, and feelings of 
human fellowship, when compared with the notion of discipline 
born of the negation of individualism, as professed by the Ger- 
mans of today ! Short-sighted critics, building a false inference 
from the fact that the German doctrine is a form of "roman- 



268 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

ticism," accuse Rousseau of being the father of the hideous 
philosophy of "might" which is deluging the world with blood. 
Of course, by dint of vague and misty reasoning you may prove 
that "tout est dans tout." But we must not be the dupes of a 
formula. "We must establish differences of degree and quality 
within the same kind ; and this is especially imperative when we 
deal with intuition. 

Moral intuition needs to be closely scrutinized, because it 
has its root at the core of our being, and rests on the very same 
basis as life consciousness. In other words, it partakes both of 
our physical and of our mental nature. Expansive or dynamic 
intuition is a higher development of the elan vital; inhibitive 
intuition a higher form of the instinct of preservation. The 
will to happiness, whence the sense of right derives, may rightly 
be interpreted as the life force become conscious of itself. Love 
and sympathy, whence arises the sense of duty to others, is an 
outcome of the social instinct. 

But as long as intuition remains a mere force of sentiment, 
a mere outflow of animal spirits, it cannot claim the quality of 
a moral factor. It is a tendency, a vague uprising of feeling, 
an inchoate embryo of an act. To assume a moral value, intui- 
tion, which is an impulse, must have a goal ; this mere form of 
consciousness must be completed by a content. 

The goal, the content can be furnished only by the intellect. 
It is by reflecting upon their own acts, their relations to other 
men, and their place in the universe, that men become the masters 
of their conduct. The element of reason is so necessary as an 
ingredient of morality that intuition without reason in primitive 
times or among barbarous tribes may lead to the most inhumane 
or loathsome practices. 

Now, German intuition, since the days when frantic roman- 
ticism took hold of the Teutonic consciousness, has willfully cut 
itself off from reason. The Germans have welcomed the sug- 
gestions of the ego, given vent to their racial idiosyncrasies, and 
national ambitions, worshipped their instincts so unrestrictedly 
that they have reverted to the primitive state where Europeans 
found the sanguinary warlike tribes of Dahomey at the time of 
their penetration into central Africa. There is such a thing as 
German intelligence, but it applies itself to the invention of 
mechanical devices or to the building up of sophistry with a 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 269 

view to justifying their appetites. Teutonic intelligence has 
ceased to ripen into reason, that is, to seek truth in paths common 
to all men, to bring the thought of today into contact with the 
best thought of the past and of other countries. Their boast is 
that they are a superior race, to stand among other peoples as 
the embodiment of the unique. When they seek a support to 
their claim by referring to antiquity, it is to the antiquity of 
their own race, as represented by Hermann of the Hyrcynian 
forest and the worshipers of the god Thor. They disown the 
Graeco-Latin civilization as alien to their own growth, and pass 
judgment upon it as decadent. 

The moral intuition, as reestablished by Eousseau, brings 
the forces of sentiment and imagination, the very breath of life, 
to bear upon the highest and purest concepts of reason, evolved 
by human intelligence at work on the data of moral and social 
experience for thirty centuries. Eousseau re-discovers the moral 
emotion, which the over intellectualized neo-classic period had 
forgotten. He opens to it new avenues of development in the 
field of individual assertion and social coordination. But his 
principle of the Rights of Man is nothing but the modern ap- 
plication of the principle of justice according to Plato, and the 
principle of respect of the person of and love for our fellow 
men according to the Christian doctrine. Under influences which 
grew from historical and speculative causes his Platonism be- 
comes democratic, and his Christianity social and immediately 
applicable to actual problems ; but in essence his doctrine agrees 
with the liberal thought of the great initiators of civilization. 
He invokes as his justification and willingly submits to the 
consensus optimorum hominum. He is a link in the great chain 
of human progress. He moves one stage up the rough path 
where men struggle against brute force for right, for justice, 
for loving kindness, in the clear light of reason vitalized by 
feeling. 

The revival of moral intuition initiated by Eousseau was the 
decisive step at the end of the seventeenth century toward the 
idealism for which civilized nations are fighting today at the cost 
of innumerable sacrifices and untold agony. It has nothing in 
common with the revival of brutal instincts inaugurated by Ger- 
many, which, were it to prevail, would darken the world by a 
regression to barbarity. 



270 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 



THE PEESS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 

Oswald Garrison Villard 
President of the New York Evening Post and Editor of The Nation 

Today international problems and duties overwhelm us. 
Abandoning, for weal or woe, our historic policy of concerning 
ourselves chiefly with the affairs of our own continent, we have 
plunged with high motives and altruistic zeal into international 
relationships and enmities which cannot but profoundly affect 
the life of the Nation for all time. Domestic issues are com- 
pletely overshadowed for the moment, or disappear altogether. 
Upon all leaders of public opinion is thrust the necessity of 
thinking internationally in terms to which Americans are almost 
wholly unaccustomed. Shall we fight to return Alsace-Lorraine 
to France ? Shall we compel, by our American arms, the cession 
of the Trentino and the Dalmatian Islands to Italy? Shall we 
Americans settle the future status of the Jugo-Slavs, of whom 
most of us had never heard a year ago? And what shall be our 
attitude toward a couple of dozen nationalistic groups like the 
Ukrainians, Finns, Armenians, Esthonians, Montenegrins, and 
all the rest? In bewildering numbers they present themselves 
and insist that we Americans hold in our laps the fate of many 
of their aspirations. 

How shall we meet these strange, far-reaching issues that 
imperiously compel our attention ? More particularly, how are 
we of the American press dealing with them ? We find ourselves 
literally overwhelmed by the volume of news that pours in upon 
us, to say nothing of the grave new responsibilities of inter- 
preting its foreign aspects. It now seems incredible that there 
was a time when editorial writers frequently were compelled to 
meet to ask each other what they could find to discuss that was 
novel. Today the problem is to decide which of the most out- 
standing issues and events shall receive comment. In the over- 
whelming magnitude of what is going on editors seem able only 
to glimpse the striking and startling. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 271 

More than that, few of the professions are rising to the duties 
of the hour. We see the dramatic in the reconquest for Chris- 
tianity of the Holy City; we have no time to speculate as to 
where it will lead or what it should usher in. The hours are 
too fleeting, too full of the making of history to allow time for 
constructive policy or suggestion. One may survey the whole 
field of American journalism and find only an editor here and 
there emerging long enough from the hurly-burly to do else than 
to echo the views of the latest public man's speech. If we do 
find one who raises doubts, searches after truths, and questions 
policy out of wisdom and experience, as like as not we suspect 
him of being in sympathy with the enemy. Making every pos- 
sible excuse for the enormous difficulty of gathering news from 
overseas in a time of chaos, the refusal of a large portion of the 
sober press to analyze, to study, to test events and public utter- 
ances by the light of past national policies and human experience, 
constitiTtes a phenomenon to alarm those who believe that a 
sound and intelligent public opinion is far more necessary in 
time of national crisis than at any other period. For the press 
to abdicate its function of judging calmly and of guiding the 
formation of public judgment, based upon principles and facts, 
is to serve the public illy. 

Yet it is a fact that today, as a whole, the press cries hurrah 
at everything that high authority voices. Thus if it declares 
one month that there must be a peace without victory in order 
to advance the world, there is universal journalistic applause; 
when, a couple of months later, the same authority declares, 
fundamental circumstances being unaltered, that there must be 
victory to save civilization, there is precisely the same applause, 
and no one stops to inquire which position was right or wrong. 
The instances might be multiplied without end; nor is the 
phenomenon in the least degree confined to our own country. 
Beyond the seas, a ''bitter-ender," knock-out-blow speech from 
the lips of a premier receives as hearty a welcome as one from 
the same source that breathes a greater humanitarianism, a far- 
sighted statesmanship. 

In wartime, of course, a popular theory is that there must be 
complete abatement of independent thinking on the part of 
editors if independence leads them to differ in the slightest de- 



272 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

gree from opinions that have governmental sanction, lest other- 
wise there be presented a divided front to the enemy. After a 
while, however, as this war has shown in every country, notably 
in England and in our own, this theory breaks down. There are 
speedily sharp differences of opinion as to administrative or mili- 
tary methods, and suddenly, by the act of a labor leader, or a 
beyond-the-seas aristocrat, or perhaps even of a United States 
senator there is a sudden loosening of pens and tongues and, lo, 
it is no longer treasonable to differ with authority or to berate 
it, or to assert without regard to the effect upon the enemy that 
executive incompetence delays and loses the war. Plainly, there- 
fore, history is against, and precedent, too, the theory that the 
press in wartimes shall either be speechless on foreign affairs, 
or merely the mouthpiece of the ruling powers. There are no 
statesmen and no rulers under any form of government so wise, 
so just, and so far-sighted as to be beyond the need of the re- 
straining power of enlightened journalistic criticism. Hence 
any situation that results in a country's press being moulded 
into one form by official act is fraught with danger, for the official 
then finds himself without a single restraining influence, since in 
war time parliaments are invariably dominated by the executives. 
More than that, a press that is fully subservient to secretaries 
of state, or to chancellors, or to foreign offices becomes, even in 
pacific times, a menace to its own country and often to the 
world 's peace — something to be scorned and flouted even by those 
who purchase it for their own ends. A press that invariably 
approves every governmental act quickly enough loses the public 
regard just as soon as the public realizes that it has abandoned 
the functions of a critic. Fortunately, we Americans never wit- 
nessed any such governmental purchasing of the venal news- 
papers as has too often been the rule in Europe, of which the 
classic and horrible example is Bismarck using the "reptile 
press" at home for his frequently base aims and suborning jour- 
nalists abroad by German gold, precisely as we have witnessed 
similar Machiavellian performances during the last three years. 
The very suggestion that our government was using our news- 
papers or press associations for propaganda abroad, or to influ- 
ence foreign policy at home, even from the best of motives, would 
cover the press with confusion, destroy what authority it has 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 273 

left, and place it under the lasting doubt of every reader, besides 
attaching grave suspicion to the government itself. 

On the other side, it is impossible to deny that the press, both 
in peace and in war times, can and often does exercise an un- 
favorable influence upon diplomatists and statesmen. For we 
have seen a yellow press in this country involve us in one war, 
and a metropolitan press throwing its entire power towards get- 
ting us into the present struggle ; we have seen The London Times 
deliberately goad England into a wicked war upon the Boers. 
We see today an English newspaper potentate of unrivalled 
power making and unmaking ministers and even dictating na- 
tional policy. We behold his American counterpart deliberately 
seeking to embroil us in war with Mexicans and Japanese. In- 
deed, too often, editors embarrass well meaning diplomatists by 
frightening or driving statesmen who are carrying on delicate 
negotiations into "taking extreme positions, and putting for- 
ward impossible things, or in perverting history and law to help 
their case." It was Mr. Edwin L. Godkin's opinion that the 
press had influenced diplomatists disadvantageously in all except 
a few of the many cases he had observed during his long career, 
"Unhappily," he felt, "in times of international trouble the 
easiest way" for the newspapers to impress their readers always 
seemed to be "to influence the public mind against the for- 
eigner." In 1895, after he had manfully stood up for reason 
and sanity in dealing with England in the matter of the Vene- 
zuelan boundary, he wrote that "until we get a race of editors 
who will consent to take a share of the diplomatists' responsi- 
bility for the national peace and honor, the newspapers will con- 
stitute a constant danger to the amicable relations of great 
powers." Had he lived during the last five years he would 
have had to admit a distinct bias toward war as the proper 
solution of international difflculties on the part of the bulk of 
the American press, and he would have been appalled at its 
positive ferocity toward those who maintain, even in war time, 
that there are nobler and higher ideals than the imposition of 
national policy by brute force. 

What adds to the anxiety of those Americans who are aware 
of the waning of journalistic authority in this country is the 
widespread feeling that there are still other criticisms to be 



274 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

made of the conduct of our journalism than those I have touched 
upon. No honest journalist can deny that our newspapers have 
steadily been losing ground on the score of accuracy, responsi- 
bility, and willingness to present all sides of the case in other 
matters than foreign affairs. More than that, it is widely alleged 
in every reform camp in the land that the press has become a 
class press, in place of a journalism for the whole nation. The 
complaint is not new; only more intense as our underlying un- 
happiness as a people has increased of late. Thus one finds 
many Americans today who feel that Mr. Gladstone 's unanswer- 
able indictment in 1876 of the London journalism of that day, 
apropos of an international incident, would apply to our own 
American journalism of 1918. It reads thus : 

''There is an undoubted and smart rally on behalf of Turkey 
in the metropolitan press. It is, in the main, representative of 
the ideas and opinions of what are called the upper ten thousand. 
From this body there has never, on any occasion within my 
memory, proceeded the impulse that has prompted and finally 
achieved any of the great measures which, in the last half 
century, have contributed so much to the fame and happiness 
of England. They did not emancipate the Dissenters, Roman 
Catholics and Jews. They did not reform the Parliament. They 
did not liberate the negro slave. They did not abolish the Corn 
Laws. They did not take the taxes off the press. They did not 
abolish the Irish Established Church. They did not cheer on 
the work of Italian Freedom and Reconstitution. Yet all these 
things have been done, and done by other agencies than theirs, 
and despite their opposition. . . . Unhappily, the country is un- 
derstood abroad mainly through the metropolitan press."* 

The parallel is interesting, even alarming, for if public faith 
is further weakened in journalism as it has been shaken in the 
old-fashioned diplomacy and statesmanship now so utterly dis- 
credited, we shall surely be open to the danger of conquest by 
demagogues, by the vile spirit of foreign militarism, or by un- 
intelligent revolutionists of the most radical stripe. In a world 
in chaos, it is essential that there should be something to tie to, 
something to which men may hold fast. Even the power of the 



Morley's "Gladstone," Vol. II, p. 557. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 275 

churcli has been waning under the stress of a world-war. There 
must be some basis of accurate knowledge by which men may 
test events and shape the course of the nation; there must be 
some sort of news absolutely independent of politicians, and men 
in office and censorships, in order to exercise that corrective and 
critical influence which made our forefathers deem the news- 
papers the chief bulwark of our liberties, and attempt to safe- 
guard its rights by a constitutional provision, lately much hon- 
ored in the breach. 

To leave the issues of the war: let us take our recent ad- 
venture in Hayti and San Domingo as an instance of the way the 
press, in foreign affairs, takes everything for granted. In those 
countries we have pulled down governments, have refused to 
pay interest on a national debt, have closed up one congress and 
placed absolutely autocratic military governments in charge, in 
direct opposition to the wishes of those people. I would not 
inquire here as to the justice or the morality or the consistency 
of these acts. I only wish to point out that, so far as I could 
discover, there were not more than five journals in this country 
which took the trouble to examine into the facts, or the reasons 
for the government's action, or sought for independent knowl- 
edge as to what led up to this development. There was the 
usual chorus of absolute approval. America could do no wrong ; 
why inquire ? Are not her motives of the best ? Now, that is a 
happy state of mind and a convenient one, even if it is true that 
if this Caribbean policy should be reversed two years hence, there 
would be the same chorus of journalistic approval. But if the 
desideratum is a watchful, well informed, intelligent, and inde- 
pendent press, bent upon preserving the liberties of ourselves 
and our neighbors, then truly are our newspapers sorely lacking. 

So that the question before us is how to bring about moral 
responsibility in the moulders of our public opinion, and how 
to keep them free from governmental domination. Nothing more 
and nothing less. You may veil it as you please, but when you 
assign to m.e the subject of the press and our international rela- 
tions you are really asking me to suggest how the press can be 
made to live up to its solemn duty of telling the whole truth 
about our neighbors in this world, and of judging them in 
accordance with facts, and with the dictates of ethics. You 



276 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

have a concrete instance here on the Pacific Coast in the matter 
of Japan. If these delicate relations of ours with that remark- 
able country across the Pacific are to be left to the tender mercies 
of certain broad-hatted pirates of American journalism, to the 
tender mercies of our Jingoes and our defense leagues, whose 
paid agents are going about the country demanding the largest 
navy in the world, universal military service, and almost every 
attribute of European militarism in order to prepare us for war 
with Japan, then that war will inevitably come — provided there 
is not the general disarmament and sinking of fleets which 
English labor and the Inter- Allied Labor Conference demand as 
the chief result of this war. 

At once, you see, the question becomes broader than that of 
the press. Because of the latter 's failings you of the public 
must take hold of the situation and make up your minds, if you 
stand with President Wilson, that no such horror as we are 
witnessing shall come to harrow the world again. As enlight- 
ened public opinion has been toning up the newspapers in the 
matter of decent and honest advertising, by compelling them 
through act of Congress to print their actual circulation figures, 
and by the ending of the scurrilous personalities which were 
once a chief characteristic, so it must be keyed up to demanding 
a different attitude on the part of the press toward anything 
as solemn and as fateful as our intercourse with other nations. 
You should make up your minds that you will not only support 
the editors of thoughtful and internationally minded periodicals 
like "The Public," "The Dial," "The New Republic," "The 
Review of Reviews," etc., but that you will insist that other 
editors as well shall deal with international problems solely 
according to the dictates of morality and of good will toward 
all mankind, come what may. 

Can any rationally minded man believe that there is any 
issue between Japan and the United States that cannot be settled 
by open covenants of peace and open diplomacy? There are 
no issues between individuals that cannot be adjudicated in a 
proper tribunal; and there are none between nations which 
will not similarly lend themselves to settlement by international 
judges sitting in an international court. The trouble is that 
we have never gone at it the right way ; we have not really cared 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 277 

enough to undertake it, never dreaming to what low estate the 
world could fall, that we should come to the killing of millions 
of precious human beings. Now we know. No longer can there 
be any excuse for failure to realize whither the old order leads 
us ; no longer can there be any excuse for not concentrating the 
moral and material power of the land upon this question of so 
organizing our public opinion as to do our share and play our 
great part in reorganizing the world. 

Does this seem impractical and visionary? By no means, 
not even the converting of the press. Party journalism has long 
since outlived its usefulness in America ; newspapers everywhere 
have learned that political independence in domestic affairs pays, 
not only in influence and public respect but in dollars and cents 
as well. Yet in 1884 nothing could have been more visionary 
than the belief that, within thirty years, the bulk of our news- 
papers would be free from party bondage, that even so hide- 
bound an organ as the Netv York Tribune would learn to throw 
off its shackles at times. 

This making over of our press has been a slow growth, it is 
true. But what have we not learned during the last year of the 
power of this country to rouse itself and organize its moral and 
material might in nation-wide campaigns of astounding magni- 
tude ? We have seen the Liberty Loans ; the Red Cross raising 
a hundred millions in a generous outpouring of philanthropy 
never thought possible heretofore ; the nation-wide pledge to 
economize on food that we may help our allies ; the concentration 
upon a vast shipbuilding programme. All of these have revealed 
to us unbelievable reservoirs of potential power for community 
and for national welfare and progress. Why not a similar rising 
up of multitudes on behalf of true internationalism, for perma- 
nent international relations upon the basis of sound world or- 
ganization ? Can any one doubt that if our captains of industry, 
the leaders of philanthropy, of social and economic progress, 
were to leave their desks and their workshops in another up- 
rising, this time for the universal welfare, the United States 
would find itself, over night, in a position to dominate morally 
the Peace Conference, and to insure the positive success of Mr. 
Wilson's proposals for a peace which shall endure? 



278 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

Can any one doubt where the press would stand in such a 
situation, or how speedily it would follow such leadership? It 
only needs leadership, and if we must accept the opinion of 
Mr. Griadstone as applying to our American press conditions 
today and seek in vain for the reform impetus in our printing 
shops, then must we turn to other moral agencies for inspiration, 
as it has come in England from the magnificent leadership of 
the British labor party and Mr. Arthur Henderson. Our Chris- 
tian churches in America alone could bring this to pass were 
they faithful to themselves. The vast machinery of the Red 
Cross, with its twenty million members, could accomplish it. 
Why is there any hesitation? Of the press the demand would 
only be for accuracy and honesty of reporting of foreign events 
which the bulk of our papers are today sincerely desirous of 
supplying ; for that same non-partisanship in dealing with inter- 
national happenings and difficulties which marks the attitude 
of many influential dailies in domestic affairs. In addition, you 
should demand of it broad sympathies and high moral tone, 
together with the ability to see that in this little world inter- 
nationalism must reign ; that a social and economic organization, 
based upon the theory that all nations must once in so often 
spill their blood, is, under heaven, the grossest of human ana- 
chronisms, which inevitably insures the existence of one robber 
nation and makes a mockery of the underlying teachings of the 
Savior. 

But I hear you say, how is this to be accomplished? By 
high-sounding resolutions? By solemn popular affirmation that 
we Americans desire a better human society and a better world ? 
What concrete programme or course is there before us which 
we can demand of our press and our other leaders of opinion, 
and insist that they intelligently and enthusiastically advocate 
it? Fortunately, the way has been cleared, the aims clarified, 
the first vital steps toward world reorganization cogently, su- 
perbly, nobly outlined by the President of the United States in 
his fourteen demands for peace. There may be a question or 
two as to a couple of these proposals, but no one can doubt that 
if their universal acceptance is the outcome of this war, the very 
air that we breathe will have been purified, the world will face 
a new era with a promise of happiness never realized before. 



SPECIAL LECTURES 279 

This is the hour, solemnly and patriotically, to stand behind the 
President and to insist that the moral power of the nation be 
recorded behind that programme which all the liberal forces 
in England and in Europe, even in the hostile countries, have 
recognized as blazing the way for humanity. This programme 
will not be carried out unless Americans as a nation rally behind 
Mr. Wilson to see it through. It will not enact itself in the 
face of the reactionary forces which are sure in one guise or 
another to appear at the Peace Conference. Why is this country 
not ringing with applause for the President's brushing aside of 
all diplomatic precedents, his demand for an open diplomacy, 
and open covenants of peace 1 Eesolutions in his support ought 
to be pouring in from every hamlet in the nation. Every edu- 
cational institution ought to be making its voice heard to sustain 
and hearten the sponsor of these fourteen proposals. Is it possi- 
ble that we are too absorbed in carrying on the war, too absorbed 
in creating officers ' reserve training corps, and in drafting youth 
to kill, to make it clear, even to ourselves, for what peace aims 
we are fighting, and to support the President to the hilt in what 
is the greatest service to the country he has yet rendered 1 Perish 
the thought. Yet the fact is that the public and the press have 
not risen to his aid. 

If the fourteen proposals are too many for the public to carry 
in mind, the President has already narrowed them down to four. 
There are at bottom four simple principles, not quite his, but 
much the same, that I should like to urge upon each of my 
hearers and beg of them to advocate in season and out of season 
so earnestly that the press shall take heed and follow once more 
since it will not lead. 

First and foremost, the disarmament of all nations, which 
includes abolition of universal conscription and service, of all 
navies, and of that private right to manufacture arms and ammu- 
nition, which Lloyd George himself has promised shall here- 
after be restricted to governments alone. Secondly, the estab- 
lishment of free trade and the abolition of all protective tariffs, 
which involves freedom of the seas and of trade to all peoples 
of the earth without fear or favor or special or preferential 
rights of any kind. Thirdly, the establishment of an interna- 
tional parliament and court to which shall be submitted all issues 



280 UNIFEESITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENAEY 

between nations, dropping once for all the phrase about causes 
affecting the honor of a nation, precisely as cases between indi- 
viduals are not in the least affected by the individual honor as 
such of those who come before it. And lastly, the acceptance 
of Abraham Lincoln's immortal saying that no man is good 
enough to govern any other man without that other man 's consent 
as the only sound guiding principle for the readjustment of 
national, international, and racial relationships. 

For myself, I do not know of any better proposals to accom- 
plish not only a lasting peace but the righting of innumerable 
wrongs, and the making it possible for men of different colors 
and climes to live together in harmony and mutual respect under 
an international government, which shall solve such questions as 
immigration upon the basis of the conditions existing not in this 
country or in that but throughout the whole world. I can think 
of no higher duty for the profession to which I am giving my 
life, as my immediate forebears gave theirs — I celebrate in 
October the one hundredth year of consecutive journalistic ser- 
vice in America by the family to which I belong — than that it 
shall dedicate itself to this ideal toward which President "Wilson 
now leads the world. There is the surest way for it to recover 
its lost prestige, to clear itself of the charge that it is a class 
press, that it is a commercial press, that it likes war for war's 
sake, that it lags behind in every reform. There is nothing in 
all the world so worth while as to search out some vital principle 
to which one can devote oneself heart and soul, through good 
repute and bad repute, through good times and evil times. It 
is the same for a profession as for an individual. 

In that exquisite introduction to his recently published 
"Recollections" Lord Morley writes: "^The oracle of today 
drops from his tripod on the morrow. In common lines of 
human thought and act, as in the business of the elements, winds 
shift, tides ebb and flow, the boat swings, only let the anchor 
hold." 

Surely these principles I have outlined will afford safe moor- 
ings for the several ships of state, certainly for our beloved 
republic. The winds will shift, tides ebb and flow, gales rage, 
pilots change, captains leave the bridge. These anchors will hold, 
come what may, if we but moor our ship to them with chains 
of steel, forged in the divine fellowship of all mankind. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 281 



THE UNIVERSITY EXTENSION MOVEMENT 
Charles Richard Van Hise, B.M.E., B.S., Ph.D., LL.D. 

President of the University of Wisconsin 

The demand for vocational education during the last half 
of the nineteenth century has brought a great change in the 
functions of the university. 

The last half of the nineteenth century has seen a profound 
change in the functions of a university. Until that time the 
idea of culture was its principal aim. Then came the demand 
for vocational education, with the result that colleges of agri- 
culture, engineering, chemistry, commerce, journalism, etc., have 
been added. Then, beginning in a large way through Johns 
Hopkins University, the idea of research was added and is nov/ 
one of the acknowledged aims of the higher institutions of learn- 
ing. For a while it was thought that culture, vocation, and 
research surely comprised the possible functions of a university ; 
but noM^ the consensus of judgment of men in charge of uni- 
versities has clearly decided the question, and another great 
purpose of the university has been established, namely, university 
extension. 

The principles which demand university extension may be 
clearly formulated. To the middle of the nineteenth century 
the advancement of knowledge was comparatively slow, and at 
least a fair proportion of the knowledge that the people could 
apply had been assimilated by them in the more enlightened 
nations. But since the year 1850 the advancement of knowledge 
has been greater than in any thousand and probably in five 
thousand years before. The result is that the accumulation of 
knowledge has far outrun the assimilation of the people. 

We know now, for example, that if knowledge were applied 
the agricultural product of a nation could be easily doubled. 
Soils could give this result and improve rather than deteriorate 
in their fertility. "We know enough about the breeding of ani- 
mals so that, if that Imowledge were applied to man, the feeble- 



282 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

minded would disappear in a generation and the insane and 
criminal classes be reduced to a small fraction of their present 
numbers. Even in politics, if our scientific knowledge were 
fully used there would be a vast improvement in the government 
of our country. 

"We have now come to know that one of the great functions 
of a university is that it shall carry to the people the knowledge 
which they can assimilate for their betterment along all lines. 
It is the function of the university because it has proven to be 
the best fitted instrument to do this work. The lower schools 
cannot disseminate this knowledge, for a large part of the knowl- 
edge which could be applied to the advantage of the people has 
accumulated since the men and women of middle age have left 
the schools. Moreover, this knowledge is being constantly accum- 
ulated, and if the people are to acquire it they must have constant 
access to it as long as they live. Also, large numbers of men 
and women, now engaged in the active work of the world, have 
not had the opportunities of the schools. It is this great class 
of people, constituting roughly about four-fifths of the popu- 
lation, whom the university, through extension, is obligated to 
serve. Carrying out knowledge to the people requires the highest 
grade of experts. It involves comprehensive knowledge of the 
more recent advancement along all lines. The work of carrying 
knowledge must be organized at some center. No other organ- 
ization can meet these specifications so well as the university. 

If a university is to have as its ideal service on the broadest 
basis it cannot escape taking on the function of ' ' carrying knowl- 
edge to the people." This is but another phraseology for uni- 
versity extension, if this be defined as extension of knowledge to 
the masses rather than extension of the scope of the university 
along traditional lines. 

The broadest ideal of service demands that the university, 
as the best fitted instrument, shall take up the problem of carry- 
ing out knowledge to the people, so far as the same is necessary 
to supplement the work of the elementary and secondary schools. 

Originating at Oxford in 1850, university extension spread 
to Cambridge, and in 1885 was first definitely organized in this 
country by the University of Wisconsin. The University of 
Minnesota began the work in 1890. At this time a great many 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 283- 

independent organizations took up extension work, more than 
two hundred organizations carrying on extension in nearly every 
state of the union; and a national conference was held in De- 
cember, 1911, at Philadelphia. Gradually these earlier move- 
ments lost their enthusiasm, and it was not until the reorgan- 
ization of extension work on a new basis in 1906-07 by the 
University of Wisconsin that the present great growth of uni- 
versity extension began. Since this time a majority of state 
universities have established extension divisions with varying and 
extensive curriculums. 

The rejuvenated movement of university extension, beginning 
about eight years ago, has shown power and breadth. The new 
movement, guided by the experience and disappointments of 
previous years, is upon a sounder and broader basis than here- 
tofore. Indeed, it may be said that the policy of carrying out 
knowledge to the people has become a general one with the 
majority of the stronger American educational institutions; and 
it may be confidently predicted that those universities that have 
not already recognized this policy will do so in the near future. 

It is my profound conviction that the correspondence method 
of instruction will become of increasing importance in work of 
college grade, and that it has a vast opportunity in vocational 
work, at least to such a time in the future as continuation and 
vocational schools are developed in this country on a basis as 
thoroughgoing as in some parts of Germany. 

The work of carrying knowledge to the people is one of 
enormous magnitude in importance or in opportunity, compared 
with the functions of the university earlier recognized, those of 
instruction and research. The work is so vast that it can be 
best organized with the states as centers. In those states in 
which universities are mainly endowed institutions these may 
well cooperate with one another, as is now proposed in Massa- 
chusetts. In those states in which the universities are tax-sup- 
ported institutions they are the natural centers of organization. 
When fully developed the work will not only involve in each 
state a center at the university but district centers. Already in 
Wisconsin six such district centers in addition to the center at 
Madison are established. 



284 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENABY 

It should be realized at the outset that effectively carrying 
out knowledge to the people will prove to be expensive. For 
the work definite funds must be available, precisely as for the 
other colleges and divisions of a university. We may confidently 
predict that extension work will be sympathized with by state 
legislatures, and will be one for which an appeal may be success- 
fully made. Wisconsin is now spending several hundred thousand 
dollars yearly in its extension work, without in any way cur- 
tailing the appropriations for the other divisions of the university. 

The opportunity to carry out knowledge to the people is 
an advantage rather than a disadvantage to the growth of a 
university along other lines. But its chief justification is that 
of service. This idea was fully clarified in my mind when 
Ward's Applied Sociology/ appeared. Ward there proved that 
the greatest loss which we as a nation suffer is loss of talent. 
Talent is not the heritage of the rich, but is equally the heritage 
of the poor. If we could develop to the highest extent all of 
our talent so that it would give us the greatest efficiency, not 
simply along material lines but along all lines, our progress would 
be amazing. As I have said before, this scientific treatise of 
Mr. Ward simply proves what the insight of the poet Gray saw 
one hundred and fifty years ago, that in the country churchyard 
may lie a "mute and inglorious Milton." It should be the aim 
of the university extension to make this impossible ; to find the 
way for the boy and girl of talent, whatever the place of birth, 
whether the tenement on the East Side of New York or the 
mansion on Fifth avenue, so that the states and the nation may 
have the advantage of his highest efficiency and at the same 
time make possible for him the fullest and largest life. 

It should also be the aim of extension to assist the ordinary 
individual as well as the man of talent. If society were per- 
fectly organized each individual would have an opportunity to 
develop to the fullest degree the endowments given him by 
nature, whether they be large or small. Doubtless this will never 
be accomplished fully, but it should be the aim of extension to 
assist every individual in this direction. This, then, is the pur- 
pose of university extension: to carry light and opportunity to 
every human being in all parts of the nation; this is the only 
adequate ideal of service for the university. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 285 



WHAT DO WE MEAN BY DEMOCRACY? 
Professor Ralph Barton Perry 

of Harvard University 

Mr. Frederic Harrison opens a recent article with the fol- 
lowing paragraph : 

The war of Nations is being entangled with, is merging into, the war 
of Class: about sovereignty, ranks, upper and lower Orders; but essentially, 
between those who hold Capital and those who "Work with their hands. 
National wars, as we see, unite men in nations: Class wars suppress the 
spirit of nationality, for they herald what Socialists promise as the grander 
form of Patriotism, the brotherhood of labourers. At the opening of the 
great Eui'opean War Democracy was appealed to, and nobly it answered 
the call in the name of the Nation. But now, in this fourth year of war, 
we see all over Europe how democratic patriotism is expanding into the new 
Industrial Oi'der which dreamers for two generations have imagined as the 
Social Eevolution.* 

Whether we applaud or regret the change which Mr. Har- 
rison describes, we cannot well dispute the fact. His account 
may be exaggerated, but beyond doubt the war, after its initial 
effect of solidifying nationalities, has come more and more to 
heighten class consciousness and international fellow-feeling. 
The immensity of the war lies not only in its area and volume 
but in the profoundness and complexity of its issues. It is not 
a mere struggle for power among rival nations, but a struggle 
for ascendancy among rival forms of government, economic poli- 
cies and social philosophies. The outcome is going to determine 
not merely what nations shall survive but what institutions and 
ideals shall survive. It is not merely a question of who shall 
prove strongest, but of what form of life shall prove strongest. 
Thus we, the people of the United States, are not fighting merely 
in order that we may continue to exist ; though this is a very 
genuine and very proper motive. We are also fighting in order 
that we may exist in a certain specific way; or in order that a 
certain specific form of life may through us retain a place in 
the world. We usually call this specific form of life by the 
name of ' ' democracy. " If we are to be taken at our word, then, 

* "Orbiter Scripta, " Fortniffhtly Beview, January, 1918. 



■286 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

we not only intend to exist, and to exist with undiminished 
strength, but we intend also to be democratic, and to be more 
fully and more consistently democratic than we have as yet 
grown to be. We have repeatedly professed this creed on many 
solemn and public occasions. Do we really mean it ? And if so, 
what do we mean by it? 

If the average man were honestly to express his mind on 
democracy he would say, adapting Audrey's words to Touch- 
stone: "I do not know what democratic is. Is it honest in 
word and deed ? Is it a true thing ? " Of course, living in this 
time and place, he would be prejudiced in its favor. Democracy 
is a word to conjure with; and its meaning is so dim and so 
equivocal that almost anybody can conjure with it. Recent 
events have increased its vogue, but have at the same time led 
many persons to ask questions about it. Since its credentials 
are not clear, some sceptically minded persons are inclined to 
reject it as a superstition ; while credulous persons, on the other 
hand, are inclined to cling to it all the more tenaciously by an 
act of blind faith. Many reject or accept it on account of what 
is supposed to be implied by it. Thus in so far as woman 
suffrage or the initiative and referendum are said to be demo- 
cratic those who object to these policies are beginning to say 
that they never really believed in democracy anyway; while 
others are confirmed in their democracy from hope of the greater 
political power that is promised in its name. But precisely 
what is implied by democracy is so doubtful that both the 
advocates and the opponents of compulsory military service have 
made it the fundamental premise of their arguments. Inasmuch 
as we are at present more than ever disposed to derive our policies 
from it, democracy should be more than a symbol like the flag 
or national anthem. It should have, so far as possible, an artic- 
ulate meaning, and a meaning widely recognized and consciously 
adopted by all in whose decision the choice of policy lies. There 
are three great ideas associated with the democratic tradition: 
Equality, Liberty, and Popular Government. 

Of these three ideas, the last two. Liberty and Popular Gov- 
ernment, define what we mean by political democracy. The 
idea of liberty means that in exercising restraint upon the indi- 
vidual's action the state shall be guided by the principle of 



SPECIAL LECTUBE8 287 

guaranteeing to each individual under the law the largest possible 
sphere within which he may act in accord with his own desires 
and judgment. Popular Government means that the sovereignty 
of the state shall be distributed among those whose interests are 
at stake ; that the government shall periodically secure the con- 
sent of the governed. Political democracy is the union of these 
two ideas, of liberality and responsibility. Whether government 
of this type shall assume the form of a republic or of a consti- 
tutional monarchy is another and a less fundamental question. 
We are fighting in this war not to substitute presidents for 
kings but to substitute parliaments and representative leaders 
for slave-drivers and autocrats. But I shall here confine myself 
to the idea of Equality, as defining what we sometimes call 
'social democracy.' And I must still further limit my subject 
by omitting the notion of equality as a dignity to which men 
are born. One may argue for democracy on the ground that 
men are equal, or on the ground that they ought to be equal, 
according as one thinks of equality as an innate possession or 
as a more or less far-off good thing to be attained only by social 
progress. I shall here conceive equality not as a promise but as 
an ideal of social reconstruction. 

Equality is a potent symbol, an emotional explosive, indis- 
pensable to the arsenal of any poet or orator who wishes to 
inflame an audience. Like every symbol, it is somewhere con- 
nected with the living interests and sentiments of men. What, 
then, are the values that equality represents? When men ap- 
plaud it what good thing does it signify to them that it should 
so warm their hearts ? To what motive does it appeal ? 

1. Compassion. Equality is rooted, first, in the motive of 
compassion. This motive, instinctive and inalienable, but pecu- 
liarly cultivated, intensified, and extended by Christianity, 
prompts men to relieve the manifest distress of their fellows. 
Compassion is felt for individuals. Compassion is excited by 
the aspect which life presents at the lower end of the scale of 
happiness. On the one hand, then, it regards life concretely as 
an aggregate of suffering, struggling, hoping men and women; 
with the result that it tends to the comparative neglect of insti- 
tutions, laws, and general principles. On the other hand, it is 
essentially remedial, rather than constructive. It applies itself 



288 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

to raising the minimum rather than the maximum. It halts the 
vanguard of civilization in order that those who are dropping by 
the way or lagging in the rear may be brought abreast of the 
marching column. It is less interested in the perfection of the 
few, who demonstrate the heights to which human nature can 
attain under the most favorable conditions ; it is more interested 
in providing the unfortunate man with the staple goods of health, 
food, and protection. It is distributive and extensive in its effect, 
rather than qualitative and intensive. It is, then, clearly an 
equalizing motive. 

It is this motive which is stronger in women than in men; 
which is just now more alive to the suffering of individual soldiers 
and civilians than to the larger issues of the war; which dwells 
upon famine, pestilence, and cruelty, and is liable to ignore 
questions of political or economic policy. The range and effect 
of this motive have been enormously extended by the recent in- 
crease of intercommunication between classes, nations, continents, 
and hemispheres. The feeling for all mankind as a vast aggre- 
gate of suffering individuals is no longer a vague and pious 
sentiment, but a powerful spring of action which must be reck- 
oned with as a force in human affairs. It is the link between 
democracy and humanity. 

The motive of compassion does, it is true, tend to the com- 
parative neglect of the broader considerations of policy, and to 
the comparative neglect of the arts and sciences. In so far as 
this is the case it is open to criticism, and even defeats itself. 
Nevertheless, it is essentially sound, not to be rejected but to 
be supplemented and corrected. The essential truth which it 
bespeaks is this: that in the last analysis the units of life are 
individual, sentient beings. The merit of any social system is 
to be judged by the happiness which it creates. And a social 
system may as fairly be judged by the lot of men at the bottom 
as by the lot of men at the top. It is comparatively easy to 
devise a sj^stem that shall make some men happy, provided the 
majority may be sacrificed for the purpose. The great task of 
civilization is to achieve a happiness that may be generally shared, 
by which the good of one man shall also enhance the good of 
another. Until this is achieved civilization may fairly be re- 
garded as on trial. So far, then, the idea of equality means 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 289 

this community and mutuality of life, in which all men shall 
achieve happiness and perfection together, at a pace which re- 
quires neither the abandonment nor the exploitation of the 
unfortunate. 

2. Emulation. The second motive of equality is emulation. 
Men desire to overtake or surpass their fellows in the race of 
life. Every activity of life, art, science, and public service, as 
well as money-getting, politics, and ' ' society, ' ' matches one man 
against others, and distributes the competitors who are entered 
in a scale of comparative failure and success. The same motive 
of emulation which prompts a man to exceed the attainments of 
others makes him resent another's victory when it is not earned. 
Emulation begets the demand for fair play, or for a "square 
deal." The race must be to the swift, not to those who from 
the start find themselves already at or near the goal through 
no efforts of their own, or to those who are assisted from the side- 
lines. The man who wins despite initial disadvantages, the ' ' self- 
made man," is doubly honored; but such initial disadvantages 
are none the less regarded as contrary to the code of sportsman- 
ship. All competitors must be given an even start; or, as we 
say, opportunity must be equalized. A social hierarchy in which 
the accident of birth or "connection" rigidly distinguishes the 
fortunate from the unfortunate must, according to this code, 
give place to a more flexible system of interchangeable stations, 
in which success shall be determined by talent and energy. 

That this motive has powerfully affected modern social re- 
construction no one can deny. ' ' Every great social and econom- 
ical change in modern Europe," says Mr. Cliff e Leslie, "has 
helped to clear the passage through the crowd, and through the 
world, for the humblest man with any real individuality."* 
The enormous extension in modern times of the opportunity for 
eminence is illustrated by the fact that from the arrival of the 
Saxons in Britain to the accession of Edward III only seven 
great names are recorded in English history — Alfred, "William 
the Conqueror, Henry II, Edward I, Anselm, Becket, and Roger 
Bacon — of whom four were kings and two were priests. The 
history of Europe was once a record of lost opportunity; it is 
now" a record of rise from obscurity. The extension of facilities 



* Essays in Economic and Moral Philosophy. 



290 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

for education, the increase of intercommunication, the abolition 
of special privilege, the wider and more equal distribution of 
wealth, these are some of the means by which this change has 
come about, and is being accelerated. No one, I think, would 
propose to retard this change. Not only does it enrich the 
collective life by utilizing talents which would otherwise remain 
buried under superficial strata of mediocrity; but it is sound 
in principle, since it requires that every form of organized 
restraint shall have a liberal and provident intent. 

A friend of mine has recently made a practice of asking 
the foreign-born Americans of his acquaintance what motive 
prompted them to come to this country. With very few ex- 
ceptions they have answered that it was because they could 
"get on" here; meaning that they could not only make a living 
but always enjoyed at least the chance of prosperity and wealth. 
The fact that extreme revolutionary propaganda has made so 
little headway in this country, that labor as a class has not usually 
found it necessary to form a distinct political party, is due to 
the fact that the working classes do find a genuine opportunity 
in the existing system. They are as a whole successful and 
hopeful. They do not feel an irreconcilable bitterness toward 
the hourgeoisie because, as my friend has expressed it, the more 
energetic and intelligent among them hope some day to belong 
to the bourgeoisie themselves. They hesitate to destroy a station 
in life which they think they may some day occupy themselves. 

But this represents the attitude of skilled, rather than of 
unskilled labor; and latterly with the larger immigration from 
southern Europe and the rapid growth of centralized industries 
it has become less and less universal. Even if this were not so, 
we must recognize the fact that those who enjoy a chance of 
success are going to insist upon increasing that chance. Pros- 
perity does ont always beget contentment. It also increases 
ambition and sense of power. It was once customary to com- 
pare the relatively great opportunity afforded by American life 
with the relatively meagre opportunity afforded by life at home, 
in "the old country." But it is now customary to demand 
more, and to judge opportunity by the standard of the more 
fortunate rather than by the standard of the less fortunate. We 
may reasonably expect that no man in the long run is going to 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 291 

be satisfied with anything short of the fullest opportunity that 
appears consistent with maintaining the total productivity and 
wealth of the country. 

There is a significant phrase in the report of a committee 
recently appointed by the Labor Party to formulate a pro- 
gramme of reconstruction after the war. I refer to the phrase, 
''effective personal freedom." This means freedom that can 
actually be used to advantage. It implies that the opportunity 
which is wanted must be a positive and liberal opportunity, 
which is not to be obtained by merely letting things alone, but 
only by contriving a more favorable situation than that in which 
the working man now finds liimself. If you drive a man up a 
tree and station a bear at the foot of it, it does not gratify him 
to be told that he is now free to do as he chooses. If you dismiss 
your son from your door without food, money, or education, and 
tell him that the whole wide world is now open to him, you have 
not given him ' ' effective personal freedom. ' ' Circumstances may 
compel him to accept your terms, hard and dictatorial though 
they may be. Freedom in such a sense is a threat and not a 
promise. 

Similarly if you rear a man in a low social station, in the 
midst of poverty and ignorance, with the necessity of livelihood 
forced upon him from an early age, and then tell him that he 
may rise even to be President of the United States, he is not 
to be forgiven if he does not appear enthusiastic and grateful. 
If you throw a man into stormy waters far from land, and then 
tell him that there is nothing to prevent his swimming to shore 
and making a nice dry warm place for himself there, you do not 
confer a boon on him ; for first he has got to keep his head above 
water, and even if by great and prolonged exertions he can do 
that, there is little chance of his living to achieve more. The 
man who demands "effective personal freedom" wants to be 
put on shore to start with. He understands that there is a 
tyranny of circumstance more fatal than that of man; that the 
worst of all tyrannies is the tyranny of existing things, of that 
established system which has grown out of human action, but 
for which no human individual now feels responsible. From 
men and institutions he demands more than passive permission 
to do what he can for himself ; he knows that for him the chance 



292 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENART 

of success is an off-cliance. He demands that men and institu- 
tions shall annul the tyranny of circumstance, and reconstruct 
the existing system so that the richness of his opportunity shall 
be somewhere nearly commensurate with his capacity and in- 
terest. "We must not deceive ourselves by giving the name of 
opportunity to mere neglect. More often than not equal oppor- 
tunity has to be created by actively intervening against estab- 
lished injustice. And we must remember that for all alike to 
have some chance of the highest success does not at all imply 
that they have a like chance even of the smallest success. There 
is all the practical difference in the world between a fair chance 
and an off-chance. 

3. Self-respect. A third motive to equality is self-respect, 
or the resentment of arrogance. No high spirited man can 
tolerate contempt. In proportion as a man is conscious of his 
natural powers and is ambitious to excel he must inevitably be- 
lieve in himself, and retaliate upon those who habitually treat 
him as an inferior. This is a different thing, as we shall see, 
from the dislike of superiority. It is dislike of conscious supe- 
riority, or of the airs of superiority ; because, in the first place, 
these aggravate accidental advantages and ignore merit ; because, 
in the second place, they imply an attitude of disparagement 
toward oneself, and force one to self-defense. 

But "dislike" is too weak a word. Humiliation begets the 
most implacable hatred. The sting of humiliation was one of 
the most powerful motives in the French Revolution. Monsters 
of cruelty, such as Marat and Carrier, were seeking balm for 
the incurable wounds inflicted upon their self-love when they 
were despised subordinates in the establishment of great nobles. 
Even Mme. Roland, as Le Bon says, "was never able to forget 
that, when she and her mother were invited to the house of a 
great lady under the ancien regime, they had been sent to dine 
in the servants' quarters." The same author points out that 
it was not those who had the most solid grievances who led the 
Revolution, but the bourgeoisie, who despite their wealth or pro- 
fessional success, were contemptuously snubbed by the aristoc- 
racy. In a measure, then. Napoleon was justified when he said : 
"Vanity made the Revolution; liberty was only the pretext." 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 293 

But this explanation ignores the deeper aspect of the motive. 
Vanity is accidental and temperamental. The mainspring of 
revolt was not vanity, but the self-confidence and self-respect 
which must necessarily accompany attainment. A man who suc- 
ceeds, or even aspires to succeed, must believe in himself. A 
democracy of opportunity must be at the same time a democracy 
of personal esteem. In a society which enables the majority of 
its members to taste success, or to dream of it, the sentiments 
of pride, honor, and dignity will be widely disseminated. They 
can no longer be regarded as the exclusive prerogatives of a 
social caste. This fact is as pertinent today as ever. If a fash- 
ionable class, an employer class, a ''respectable" class, a "high- 
brow" class, a Bostonian clan, or a white race feel themselves 
to be superior, that feeling will infallibly be scented, and will 
arouse a resentful and rebellious spirit among those who have 
become conscious of their own worth. There is no escape from 
this dilemma. Either the masses of mankind must be broken 
in spirit and convinced by subjection of the utter helplessness 
of their lot; or, if they are once allowed to travel on the high- 
road to success, their pride must be respected. A man cannot 
be given opportunity without the acknowledgment of his dignity. 

4. Fraternity. A further motive to equality is to be found 
in the sentiment of fraternity. This is a feeling or attitude 
which naturally develops among men who recognize their com- 
mon lot. It develops among lost souls who seek a common salva- 
tion, among fellow-adventurers who suffer common hardships, 
among competitors who acknowledge the same standard of suc- 
cess, or among partners who feel their mutual dependence. It 
is the converse of the motive which we have just considered. 
Self-respect demands the esteem of others, and resents dispar- 
agement. Fraternity acknowledges the just pride of others, or 
accords that which self-respect demands. It is the only possible 
relation between two self-respecting persons. It does not imply 
intimacy or friendship, for these must depend upon the accidents 
of propinquity and temperament; but it implies courtesy, fair- 
mindedness, and the admission of one 's own limitations. It must 
underly the closer relations of family, neighborhood, or vocation ; 
but it must be extended to the broader and less personal relations 
of fellow-citizenship and fellow-humanity. It is the essential 



294 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

spirit of that finer companionship which even kings have cov- 
eted; but in a diffused and rarified form it is the atmosphere 
which is vital to a democratic community. 

It is the motive of fraternity which justifies that freedom 
of manners which we properly associate with a democracy. A 
fraternal democracy does not fail to acknowledge superiority; 
indeed, democracies are proverbially given to an extravagance 
of hero-worship. But they do not like to have superiority too 
conscious of itself. They do not like to have superiority con- 
verted into an institution. Hence they attack every form of 
class-stratification, and are suspicious of titles and decorations. 
The great man is always on trial, and can never settle comfort- 
ably and permanently into the exalted position to which success 
and popular applause may have raised him. Furthermore, his 
success is never confused with his person, and is not recognized 
as an essential attribute. As a statesman, or captain of industry, 
or general or admiral he may have achieved glory and distinction, 
but as a man he still ranks with his fellows. 

When once this fraternal spirit is strong and widely diffused 
it has effective ways of protecting itself. In a thoroughly demo- 
cratic community arrogance is not angrily denounced; it is 
blighted and withered before it has a chance to mature. If any 
one were to set himself up in this country as a wirkUcker Hofge- 
heimerath, as a ^'genuine court privy counsellor," after a fashion 
popular in Central Europe, he would not be execrated and 
mobbed. He would get no notice at all except in the funny 
columns of the newspapers. And he would soon learn to take 
the same attitude himself. The fact is that it is pretty hard 
to feel personally superior, if nobody agrees with you; or to 
look down on people, if you can't get anybody to look up to you. 
Those who care greatly for the external expression and recog- 
nition of superiority do not belong in a democratic society. There 
is a place where they will feel quite at home. Only those will 
be happy in a democracy who prefer to be greeted neither by 
the upward slant of obsequiousness nor by the downward slant 
of condescension, but by the horizontal glance of fraternal self- 
respect. 

5. Envy. Finally, we must recognize the motive of envy. 
This motive pompts men to dislike, not the consciousness of supe- 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 295 

riority but the substance of superiority. It is doubly vicious. 
In the first place, it is negative and destructive. The motive of 
emulation prompts men to exert themselves, and to resent only 
that which prevents their earning their deserts. Envy on the 
other hand prompts men to retard those who excel them; or to 
visit upon others those very disabilities which emulation seeks 
to escape. Envy is malicious. It derives satisfaction from defeat 
and failure. Whereas emulation seeks equality by clearing the 
course and speeding up the race ; envy seeks equality by slack- 
ening the pace and impeding the leades. A true sportsman does 
not resent being fairly beaten; and admires those who achieve 
the success to which he aspires. He devotes himself to a cult 
of merit, and aims to exalt the record of attainment by removing 
every artificial hindrance. But the envious man would rather 
win unfairly in a slow race than be surpassed by his fellows in 
a swift. 

In the second place, envy gives rise to a cult of vulgarity. 
In so far as this motive is widespread and powerful, it leads to 
a pretence of mediocrity for the sake of conciliating opinion. 
Men cultivate a sham colloquialism of speech, or roughness of 
manners; they hide their knowledge or their wealth or their 
power behind an affectation of inferiority. But dissimulation 
and dishonesty is not the worst of it. It discourages every sort 
of eminence, and robs society of the services of the expert and 
the leader. It confuses and depresses all standards of excellence. 
And it confirms the inferiority of the inferior, removing the in- 
centive to excel, and teaching him to be proud of that failure 
which should fill him with discontent and shame. 

There is a good deal of this envious democracy abroad in 
our land today. There is a dislike of "experts," a prejudice 
to which our demagogues have so effectually appealed. In edu- 
cation we like to have everything made easy. "We don't want 
to learn ; we want to be taught ; we don 't want to find out, we 
prefer to be shown. In this, and in other fields of activity, 
instead of climbing the ladder we sit comfortably at the foot and 
wait for an elevator. If the higher things don 't come easily, and 
they rarely do, then we belittle them ; while for the same reason 
we overrate the shallow and common-place attainment on which 
we can safely count. 



296 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA 8EMICENTENABY 

Now a democracy of classes and persons is something to 
aspire to, but a democracy of values is corruption and nonsense. 
The best things have got to be worked for, and belong only to 
those who excel. "Rome was not built in a day." Without 
patience and slow cumulative effort the great things are not 
attainable, nor ever will be. To disparage or despise the best 
things and the great things is an offense to mankind. For what 
is the use of opportunity if there is nothing worth gaining? It 
is better to admire even wealth or power than to admire nothing. 
There is this much of truth even in Nietzsche. In insisting 
upon the principle of Rangordnung, or order of rank, he was in 
part protesting against the abolition of standards. If we con- 
demn his demand for a gradation of persons and classes, we 
must echo and reaffirm his demand for a gradation of values. 
We must believe that nothing is too good for a democracy. 
Science, philosophy, art, virtue, and saintliness must be as rev- 
erently regarded, as earnestly sought and cultivated as formerly. 
Otherwise the much prized opportunity which a democracy 
affords is an equal opportunity for nothing. 

These several motives which underly the love of equality are 
the motives which justify or discredit the ideal of social democ- 
racy. In so far as social democracy means a compassionate 
regard for all human beings as having feelings, powers, and 
capacities of the same generic type, in so far as it means the 
equalizing of opportunity and a mutual respect, it rests upon 
sound and incontrovertible ethical grounds. But, on the other 
hand, in so far as it exalts failure, inverts standards, and acts 
as a drag upon the forward movement of life it is reactionary 
and abhorrent. 

This, or something like this, is what we mean by democracy 
as a social ideal. Now, do we really mean it? The fact is that 
we have long since committed ourselves to it. We have encour- 
aged the poor to aspire to wealth, the ignorant to seek light, 
and the weak to covet power. We have done more than this; 
we have shown them the way. For we have compelled every 
man to secure the rudiments of education and thus to become 
aware of the world about him. We permit the organization of 
the democratic propaganda, we supply the motive, and we bring 



SPECIAL LECTURES 297 

every man within the reach of it. Last and most important of 
all, we have distributed political power equally among men of 
every station and condition ; with the result that the very few 
who are fortunate may at any time be out-voted by the over- 
whelming majority of those who are relatively unfortunate. Does 
any sane man suppose that what has been scattered broadcast 
can now be withdrawn? Or that those who possess the oppor- 
tunity and know it are going to refrain from using it ? 

But I do not believe that there are many Americans who 
would withdraw the pledge and profession of democracy if they 
could, "We have not lost conviction. We need only the courage 
to see it through. 

First, our courage will be tried by the internal readjustments 
which will be necessary, which are already proving necessary, 
in so far as social democracy goes forward. It would be fatuous 
to shut our eyes to the fact that social democracy will have to 
be paid for. Are we prepared to pay by surrendering personal 
advantages that we now enjoy? We are all, like Artemus Ward, 
ready to sacrifice our wife 's relations on the altar of our country. 
But this sacrifice will touch our affections more nearly. Most 
of those who hear these words would lose materially by a more 
equal distribution of opportunity, wealth, and power. Now if 
we enjoy more than the average good fortune, are we willing 
that it should be curtailed until such time as those who enjoy 
only the minimum shall be abreast of us? Are we willing to 
give up our own dear and familiar satisfactions? Or are we 
democratic only in so far as we expect to gain by it? Are we 
democratic only in a rhetorical and vaguely sentimental sense, 
as many profess Christianity or mean to be "good"? If so, 
we are not ready for the future. This is a time to retrench, not 
merely in the consumption of luxuries but in the desire for them. 
The whole of democracy will be less indulgent to us than the 
half of it we have so far achieved. Without some previous self- 
discipline we shall many of us greet the dawn with a wry face. 
But in so far as we have learned to live more austerely, and to 
find our happiness in those things which are not diminished by 
being widely shared, we may in the time to come have the heart 
to be cheerful despite the realization of our ideals. 



298 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

But, second, our courage will be tried by the exigencies of 
the present war. To have the courage of our democratic con- 
victions means a willingness to fight a long hard fight, to endure 
a wearing and galling strain, in order that we and other peoples 
like us may be permitted to proceed with democracy. If we 
are democrats, then Germany as at present governed, motivated, 
and inspired is our irreconcilable enemy. To have the courage 
of our democratic convictions implies that we accept this chal- 
lenge. "We have first to win the privilege of being good demo- 
crats. As our brothers in Eussia are learning to their cost, this 
privilege is not to be had for the asking. It is idle for peace- 
loving democracies merely to interchange their sentiments when 
they and their sentiments with them are in mortal peril. You 
remember the man who assured his anxious friend that his dog 
would not bite him. "You know it," said the friend, "and I 
know it, but does the dog know it ? " 

We have recently been told that it is our duty to support 
the President's democratic and pacific professions "up to the 
hilt." I like the metaphor, and I subscribe to this opinion. I 
should like only to add that the men who are most unqualifiedly 
supporting the President "up to the hilt" are the men who have 
their hands on the hilt. I count no man a resolute adherent of 
democracy or of peace, or of any other good thing, who will not, 
if needs be, fight for that good thing, and with the weapons 
which will most effectually meet the danger that menaces it. 
For that reason I salute as just now the best democrats among 
us all those fortunate men who are in Prance or are on their way. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 299 



JAPANESE VIEWS ON PRESENT INTERNATIONAL 
PROBLEMS 

Masaharu Anesaki 

Professor of Comparative Religion, Imperial University of Tokyo, 1913-15 
Exchange Professor of Philosophy, Harvard University 

Mr. chairman, ladies, and gentlemen : It is my good for- 
tune to come here representing the Imperial University of Tokyo, 
to tender its felicitations to the President, the Regents, and the 
Faculty of the University of California at its semicentennial 
celebration. I congratulate you and the people of California 
on the wonderful growth of your University, which by your 
incessant zeal and generous support has become an intellectual 
bulwark on the western shores of your great land. We of Japan 
are grateful to the officers and the faculty of the University for 
the friendly services they have rendered to our country in edu- 
cating many of our young students who have come to study in 
your institution. I can assure you that the Japanese graduates 
of American colleges and universities have proved themselves to 
be not only loyal sons of their alma maters but also a connecting 
link between America and Japan, eager for the promotion of 
friendly relationship between our two nations. 

War is always a calamity, and tremendous and appalling are 
the disasters brought to mankind by the present titanic conflict. 
Yet one of the good things that has been brought about by the 
present war, as has been humorously remarked, is the extension 
of man's interest in geography. It has broken down, to a great 
extent, the barriers of provincialism and prejudice which separ- 
ated races and nations heretofore. Mankind has come to think 
in terms of the entire world, and is knit closer by moral senti- 
ments to the isolation of the power which threatens humanity. 

You American people at one time kept yourselves aloof from 
the war. But when you now look backward and examine the 
process by which you were dragged into it, will you not discover 
a logical necessity rather than the hand of blind fate in the 



300 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

steps you have taken and are yet to take ? The logic therein is 
neither that of pure reason nor of mere sentiment, but a vital 
logic of human life, a dynamic logic of national interest and 
international morality. When humanity is challenged and civil- 
ization is at stake, no people can remain indifferent and neutral 
both politically and morally. There may be a gap between 
political wisdom and moral judgment in some cases, as in the 
first period of your technical neutrality. But evidently neither 
can remain totally apart f^-om the other; and now you have 
combined both in drawing the necessary conclusion from the 
premises of the human logic. And the ultimate principle under- 
lying this logic of life is the solidarity of mankind, not only in 
economic relationships but also in moral judgment and social 
ideals. A grave challenge has appeared against the whole world 
in the preposterous claim of a militaristic nation to a right to 
dominate nations and to control their destinies; and the chal- 
lenge is responded to in the united judgment and action of the 
nations comprising more than three-fourths of the world. The 
world has been divided, but firm and consolidated are the forces 
fighting the power which has caused this breaking up of 
humanity. 

Japan is one of the allies, it is needless to say. It was her 
loyal allegiance to the letter and spirit of the Anglo-Japanese 
Alliance that induced her to leap into the struggle ; not an osten- 
tatious pretext, as her motive has been misinterpreted by some 
malicious critics. Japan forced the capitulation of Tsingtau, 
German naval base in China. She has cleared German men-of- 
war from the northern Pacific. Her fleet has convoyed the 
Australian contingents, and her cruiser and destroyer fleets are 
actively engaged in the Mediterranean Sea. In short, Japan 
has been fighting loyally for the cause of the Allies with all her 
might, and has maintained the peace of the Orient, Japan is 
at war not for aggrandizement, but for the cause of humanity; 
and yet there is a division of opinions and sentiments as to the 
issues brought forth by the German aggression. 

In the present paper it is not my intention to dwell upon 
the policy or attitude of the Japanese Government in the present 
world crisis. But I wish to deal with the attitude of the Japanese 
people in general and to analyze objectively the views and opin- 
ions of the leaders of thought in Japan concerning the war. 



SPECIAL LECTUEES 301 

Charges have been made in some quarters that Japan is 
participating in the war only half-heartedly. There may be a 
semblance of truth in this charge, for the fact is that the indi- 
vidual opinions and sentiments are not so well united as to back 
the national policy unanimously and vigorously. There are some 
who care solely for their country's interests, mainly material 
interests. Their motto is, "Japan first"; and for this purpose 
they would have their country keep herself aloof as much as 
possible from the actual warfare. Among these people are ad- 
mirers of Germany who would not like to see Japan committed 
too much to the Allied cause. Ethically speaking, these pro- 
Germans are believers in the rule of might and arms, and, there- 
fore, do not understand the moral cause of the Allied nations. 
On the other hand, however, the strong opinions and sentiments 
counteracting those of the pro-Germans have always existed and 
are increasing in their influence every day. The people holding 
these opinions believe in the moral cause of the forces fighting 
Germany, in the final triumph of right over might, and more 
concretely in the necessity of forming a grand union of nations 
which should be consolidated and be powerful enough to check 
any nation or group of nations trying to dominate the world by 
might. We can hardly estimate exactly the relative strength 
of these two opposing tendencies; but the fact is clear that the 
line of demarcation between the two has become more defined 
in the course of the last four years. "We can perhaps say that 
the principle of right as over against might is now rising signifi- 
cantly. Let me try to elucidate the steps of this change. 

The new era of Japan was marked at its start by high ideals 
of humanitarian principles, as was boldly set forth in the im- 
perial oath declaring that the "universal way of heaven and 
earth" should be the foundation of the national government, 
and that every one, even the lowest of the people, should be 
given opportunity to fulfill his aspirations. But when the zeal 
of the Japanese nation for equity in international relations had 
been frustrated, patriotic ardor began to take a form of vehement 
Chauvinism. Even after a partial fulfillment of the aspiration 
for equity in the revision of treaties to the abolition of consular 
jurisdiction had been accomplished, the aggressive penetration of 
the European powers into the Far East aroused a sense of danger 



302 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

for Japan and of responsibilities toward her sister nations of 
the Far East. This apprehensive awakening was aggravated 
by the voice of the ' ' Yellow Peril ' ' raised by the German Kaiser 
and echoed by some peoples of the West. Indeed, the distinction 
of the Yellow and White Races has been forced upon us. We 
have perhaps to accept the forced challenge and to care for our- 
selves if the western nations should insist on their aggressive and 
oppressive claims. But is there no other way of adjusting our- 
selves to the world's conditions and of establishing a better re- 
lationship between the East and the West? This was and is 
the problem imposed upon the Japanese nation. 

The general distrust of the western nations with regard to 
their practice of international morality is a great obstacle for 
the Japanese, at the present crisis, in their effort to comprehend 
the moral claims of the Allies as directed against Germany. 
Some of the Japanese ask : Can British rule in India be called 
just? Has not the American occupation of the Philippines a 
strong military aspect? Has not the Far East for some time 
been the prey of international competition? Has not Japan 
often been frustrated in her legitimate claims? These impres- 
sions, either well founded or suspiciously construed or instilled 
by dubious agents, are pretty widely current among the people. 
Thus a pointed question is often asked : How could the British 
or the Americans have become so suddenly converted in their 
moral sense that they really stand for peace and justice, for the 
liberty of smaller nations and against German aggression? 

To add another point, the only experience of the Japanese 
nation before the Hague Court was the question of the house 
tax on the foreign residents in the former concessions. The 
decision of the court in that case is regarded by the people as 
an injustice done to us. Japan has always been scrupulous to- 
ward treaties with foreign nations, but her treaty right has been 
much disregarded by the California legislature. Whether right 
or not, these are the bitter impressions produced by those events. 
These events have been responsible for the distrust toward the 
British appeal to the sanctity of treaties and an uneasiness about 
the prospect of an international court or police as proposed by 
the social and political leaders of the Allied nations. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 303 

For this reason sympathies are divided, while the moral issues 
of the war and its significance for the future of the world are 
not so well grasped by many people as the immediate causes and 
direct issues of the struggle. The thought of many is this: 
"We stand for the peace of the Far East, and for this reason we 
have disposed of the Germans at Tsingtau. We have served 
the Allies a great deal by doing this. What have we to do more 
than this? 

In order that the Japanese people may understand more 
fully the claims and pleas of the Allies, fundamental readjust- 
ment should be made in the relation between the Orient and 
the Occident. This means not simply a better coordination of 
international relationships throughout the world, but a more 
candid exchange of opinions and sentiments, and especially the 
decided advancement of a common moral platform on the basis 
of humanity. It seems to me that a great era is opening up 
before us, in spite, or rather because of the war, and that many 
of our people are keenly realizing the need of international con- 
science among all nations. 

The constitutional government of Japan is still in its infancy 
and the appeals of political leaders to the people are never so 
important as in England or America. In judging through the 
analogy of their own situation the people can hardly grasp the 
significance of the declarations, speeches, and messages of the 
Allied statesmen. Very imperfectly or erroneously understood 
is the purpose of those declarations, the call to the people for 
national and international causes, the eifort to illuminate their 
minds and to awaken their consciences to the ethical significance 
of the war. There were and are some publicists who would not 
take those claims for the cause of humanity and international 
justice at their face value, but as mere means of winning the 
world's sentiment or as ostentatious pretexts. In short, so long 
and so far as the Japanese people misunderstand or undervalue 
the moral intent and political significance of public declarations 
in constitutional and democratic countries, they will be unable 
to understand the meaning of the public declarations on the 
Allied war aims. 

On the other hand, the number of those who have grasped 
the significance of these declarations is rapidly rising, and they 



304 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENARY 

understand that the appeal of statesmen to their own peoples 
as well as to the world binds them to their measures in and 
after the war. Some of these utterances, as, for example, Lloyd 
George's speech before the Parliament in February in response 
to the German Chancellor, or the response of President Wilson 
to the Pope and his speech of February 11th before the Congress 
stating the terms of peace — these cannot but impress many 
Japanese with the candidness and boldness of the statesmen. 
Many of the leading papers of Japan published editorials point- 
ing out the significance of these speeches and contrasting the 
ambiguity and timidity of the utterances of our statesmen. The 
Tokyo Asahi, the largest metropolitan paper, praised the speech 
of President "Wilson as a new departure in the history of peace 
negotiations, in the sense that at least the preliminary discussions 
have thereby been transferred from the talks of envoys around 
the green table to an appeal to the judgment and sentiment of 
the world at large. 

Let me cite from an important study in a lengthy article by 
Professor Onozuka of the Imperial University of Tokyo, entitled 
"The Views on the War as stated by the British, French, and 
American Statesmen," published in the Kokkagaku-kai Zasshi 
of last January. He says in part : 

One thing clear even now is the significance in the war of the moral and 
spiritual factors beside the physical and economic. The gaps of sentiments 
caused by the difference of national characters and historical backgrounds 
among the warring nations are important and powerful. Though the con- 
flicts in this respect can never be neglected and minimized, a balanced valu- 
ation of these moral forces is extremely important. Moreover, we see that 
these sentimental factors are not very highly emphasized by public men, 
while special emphasis is laid by many publicists on the principles of 
justice, liberty, right, etc., and the war is regarded by them as a fight for 
life or death on these principles. . . . These are the views expressed by 
statesmen, including those in responsible positions, and hence we must 
expect that their utterances will not be limited merely to the sphere of 
ideas and ideals but are destined to control practical policies, both national 
and international. More especially, since England, France and America 
are preeminently democratic countries, their statesmen as a rule carry out 
their policies by appealing to, and conducing to form, public opinion. 
Thus their appeals, direct or indirect, to the nation carry with them theii* 
own individualities as well as an aspect of national determination. For 
any utterances of the statesmen, as practcal men, are reduced to nothing, 
unless they touch the national inclination and are backed by public opinion. 
In addition, these public statements are furnished with the form and con- 
tent of an appeal to the opinion of the civilized world at large, as well as 
to the people of the country concerned. Thus there are international aspects 
in these utterances, besides the individual and the national. How can it 
be otherwise than that most of them are dignified in expression, sound in 
argument, and lofty in ideals! 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 305 

After this introduction the writer gives a resume of many 
public statements by Asquith, Gray, Lloyd George, Poincare, 
Viviani, and others at the opening of the conflict, down to Presi-- 
dent Wilson's note of June 9, 1917, to the new government of 
Eussia, by analyzing the most essential points expressed and 
implied therein. He concludes thus: 

Although the policies of nations in these several decades have chiefly 
been guided hj purely national interests, we must notice that there has 
been also a decided growth in the tendency of international cooperation. 
Apparently this latter has been much broken down by the outbreak of the 
present war, and the dignity of international law has been greatly im- 
paired. But all this is a superficial aspect, while the minds of the warring 
nations are demanding a decided advance in the harmonious relationship 
among nations, being deeply dissatisfied with the actual conditions of inter- 
national relationships. The rise of this tendency and demand has been 
shown, immediately after the outbreak of the war, by the expressions of 
many scholars and thinkers in the allied countries, and by the subsequent 
organization of several influential bodies for the attainment of interna-' 
tional aims which are now approved by the responsible men in the divers 
governments. The country where movements of this kind are most ex- 
tensive is the United States, and the one who stands most firmly for these 
principles is its Chief Executive, President Wilson. His words and acts 
have ever been a great guiding power in leading up the public opinion of his 
country to this point, whOe the support by public opinion is the ground on 
which his bold and firm statements stand. The cause of international co- 
operation has officially been accepted in principle by all of the Allied 
nations, of which the Allies' note to the United States of January 10, 
1918, gave a public utterance. No one who cares for politics after the 
war can afford to miss these points of the international political currents. 

Monarchy or democracy is an important point involved in 
the issues of the war. An apprehension is felt that the Allies' 
condemnation of German autocracy may develop finally in Japan 
into a wholesale denunciation of monarchy, which is the state 
structure of Japan. This is shared alike by some progressives 
who have been fighting for a truly constitutional government 
and by conservatives who identify their own clique or clannish 
spirit with patriotism and loyalty. The latter comprises mili- 
tarists, expansionists, and bureaucrats, who have been afraid of 
any rise of democratic spirit in the nation, even apart from a 
strong democratic tendency consequent upon the war. They now 
see in the explicit declarations made by the Allied statesmen and 
publicists that the Allied aim is to exterminate German autocracy 
and militarism; and naturally the bureaucrats see in the rising 
tide of democratic ideas the world over a formidable march of 
their own foes. 



306 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

The sentiments and opinions of the progressives are not so 
unanimous as those of the conservatives ; but not a few of them 
apprehend that an indiscriminate denunciation of monarchy on 
the part of the Allies may lead to a moral isolation of Japan. 
Moreover, even apart from the international aspect of the issue, 
their opponents, the conservatives, may strengthen their stand 
against democracy or constitutionalism; or the radicals may 
derive their incentive from the plutocratic anarchy shown by 
the Russian Bolsheviki, and undermine a wholesome development 
of our own constitutionalism. Thus an apprehension is enter- 
tained pretty widely that the democratic tide may mean a serious 
danger to Japan's own internal affairs, though the grounds of 
the apprehension are rather opposite in the cases of the two 
camps.* 

The tide of democratic ideas, however, is steadily advancing 
in Japan. Its onward movement can be illustrated by the writ- 
ings of such influential political thinkers of the younger gener- 
ation as Professor Oyama of Waseda University and Professor 
Yoshino of the Imperial University of Tokyo. They demand a 
democratization of Japan on the monarchical basis, because it 
is the sole means of reaping the best harvest of constitutionalism. 
Constitutionalism has always been an inspiration to the nation, 
and without its free development the vigorous growth of the 
nation cannot be expected. For the bureaucratic rule and the 
corruption of the political parties are both a manifestation of 
the politics based on class interests, against which a wholesome 
development of the individual and the free expressions of the 
people 's judgment and conscience are the only remedy. Herein 
lie the moral and social aspects of politics, while the government, 
however efficient and well intentioned it may be, can never 

* There are some impressions in the West that Japan is a highly cen- 
tralized autocracy of the Prussian type. But entirely false is the alleged 
likeness of the militaristic structure of the Prussian state and the mon- 
archial system of Japan. There may be some similarities in form, but there 
are fundamental differences between the two states. To cite only one illus- 
tration out of many, the Prussian monarchy is a result of fierce racial 
struggles. Without the wars of aggTandizement Prussia could never have 
attained its imity and expansion. On the other side, Japan attained her 
unity and solidarity in the peaceful isolation of an insular nation of which 
its time-honored monarchy is the emblem. This is not a mere geographical 
difference, but it has created a marked difference in the temperament of 
the two peoples, and in the relationship between the rulers and the ruled. 
I hope I can take up this subject on another occasion. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 307 

achieve a vigorous and steady policy without the backing of 
public opinion or without succeeding in the leadership of public 
opinion. 

In these points these two thinkers express themselves in con- 
sonance ; and they have many followers among the younger gen- 
eration and are perhaps destined to rule the future of Japanese 
politics. Their influence upon practical politics seems to be still 
a matter of the future, but the people, sadly disappointed with 
the bureaucratic government, as well as with the existing political 
parties, are steadily awakening to the necessity of reconstructing 
their political institutions from the bottom up. In this the 
leadership of these academic thinkers is becoming an important 
factor and has manifested its influence in some cases of general 
election. 

To quote Professor Oyama, he emphasizes the moral basis of 
political views and measures and stands against class monopolies 
in any form. He says : 

The principal of the siirvival of the fittest in its sheer material aspects 
has no doubt been an important factor in the past and present, but ought 
never to be solely the measure of determintug the future. The sole aim of 
state management ought to consist in bringing both the privileged and the 
unprivileged classes into a harmonious relation of good will, by emanci- 
pating them from the clash of class interests, and thereby causing them all 
to cooperate in the great task of enriching the national life in its material 
and spiritual aspects and of realizing a real unity of the nation. 

Contrary to this ideal, as Professor Oyama further says, the 
governing classes, both the clannish bureaucrats and the political 
parties, have appealed always to the means and end of material 
successes, and the inevitable consequence is the degeneration of 
the politicians and an atmosphere of decadent desperation in 
the nation's mind. In this sense we demand democracy which 
is in no way incompatible with the monarchical constitution, 
because the clannish oligarchy is detrimental both to monarchy 
and democracy. Monarchy may be symbolized in the apex of a 
pyramid, with democracy as its basis. While the nation has 
been engaged in internal struggles and factious strifes, the world 
is undergoing a momentous change through the war; and this 
cannot but have its effect upon the practical politics as well as 
the currents of political ideas in Japan, the signs of which are 
now visible. In short, the critical issues in Japanese politics is 



308 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

not between monarchy and democracy, but between a union of 
these two and oligarchy. 

Finally, one point may be cited as one of the consequences 
of the war: that it has brought nearer home to many Japanese 
minds the irreconcilable issue between right and might, between 
the will to power and the will to justice. The issue is to be 
viewed from the point of human nature. Indeed, human beings 
are furnished with hate and greed as well as with conscience and 
heart. The problem of human life, then, amounts to how human 
life can be so controlled that the instincts be elevated and purified 
to the higher planes of life. The instincts of self-preservation 
and the perpetuation of the race are not base and mean in them- 
selves, but can be, and ought to be, so refined and enlarged as 
to make out of them the foundation of harmonious life for indi- 
viduals and for nations. 

Herein lies the gravest problem of human life, while the 
present war has brought forward the necessary consequences of 
the idea that life consists solely in the ruthless struggle for 
existence, in competition at the expense of others. Is it not this 
nightmare under the disguise of Darwinism that has guided, or 
misguided, nations, perhaps without exception, and many indi- 
viduals to a life of greed and arrogance? If there is another 
aspect and factor of human life, and if the evils and disasters 
of war are not to be a permanent fate of mankind, can we not 
act to accelerate the harmony of life through the control of the 
baser aspects of human instincts and by fostering the elevating 
and purifying influences? In fact, Darwin has emphasized the 
role of sympathy in human life, and the war, in spite of its 
horrors, is working to arouse in human minds compassion toward 
the suffering, sympathy among the nations fighting for the same 
cause, and a sense of human solidarity in the face of the power 
threatening humanity. Seen in this light, the problems of indi- 
vidual life are intrinsically correlated with those of national and 
international life. Not only should similar standards of moral 
judgment and conduct be brought to bear both upon individuals 
and upon nations, but national and international life should ulti- 
mately be based on the noble aspects of human nature, as this 
may be trained and elevated by the consciousness and by the 
influence of human solidarity. 



SPECIAL LECTUBES 309' 

This point brings us to see the fundamental correlation be- 
tween the dignity of individual personality and the principle of 
international justice ; because the wholesome development and 
perfection of the individual personality presupposes a realization 
in its life of universal humanity, which can never be worked out 
without a free social life and a peaceful cooperation of nations. 
The moral life of the individual cannot be perfected apart from 
his social relationship, and a harmonious community of free and 
independent individuals demands a democratic society, in which 
every one lives for himself and at the same time for others, saves 
others in order to save himself. Democracy, in this sense, is not 
only a political and social principle, but a moral, and even a 
religious ideal. It means a harmonious development of human 
life in the individual, in the family, in the state, and in humanity 
at large. Just as there is a democracy within one community, 
there ought to be a democratic community of nations, in which 
each and every nation ought to be free and independent and at 
the same time ought to serve others, cooperate with others. Thus 
the principle of democracy brought to clear light through the 
war is an individual principle as well as national and inter- 
national, for which we may perhaps coin a phrase, ' ' international 
democracy. ' ' 

To take one instance, "social reconstruction" as discussed 
in England is, in fact, an ethical as well as a social problem ; and 
it amounts to a reconstruction of human life in all its phases, 
individual, national, and international. ''Social" reconstruction 
without a fundamental reformation of individual character will 
be as ineffective as a political democracy without moral foun- 
dation in the individual character; and similarly a reign of 
international law or justice will ever remain a mere form of 
conventions, to be pulled down at any moment by any nation 
strong and atrocious enough to do so, so long as the single nations 
and their component citizens base their life on the principles of 
might and wealth. 

"We see thus the problems of human life reduced to one and 
the same foundation, to the elevation of human instincts, to a 
realization of harmony in life, which may be summed up in one 
phrase, the principle of humanity. This has become clear to us, 
in spite, or rather because, of the war ; and there are not a few 



310 VNIVEESITY OF CALIFOBNIA 8EMICENTENABY 

in Japan who are realizing the signiJ&cance of the war in con- 
nection with the problems which confront us as regards the 
future of humanity and civilization. To cite one group, the 
Association Concordia of Tokyo has been working for inter- 
religious, international, and interracial understanding and har- 
mony; and some of its members are working eagerly for eluci- 
dating these points as connected with the issues of the war.* 

Let me conclude this address by a summarized survey of the 
opinions on the "war aims" expressed by twenty prominent 
men published in the March issue of the Taiyo, one of the largest 
monthlies. Roughly dividing those opinions into two groups, 
we find that nine of them stand for the principle of might or 
of self-interest as regards Japan's attitude toward the present 
war, while the remaining eleven stand for international cooper- 
ation, i.e., more or less for the principle of justice. This may 
not be a conclusive representation of Japanese opinion ; and yet 
it is a fairly good indication of the conflict of ideas brought forth 
by the challenge and appeal of the war. 

As to myself, I believe in the future of humanity, in a new 
area of the world's civilization to be inaugurated by cooperation 
of nations and of their leaders, provided that the individuals 
and the nations be humane enough to derive lessons from the 
war, the consummate result of the reign of might and wealth. 
To express the same thing in another way, I denounce the reign 
of competition, or of "international anarchy" which ruled the 
world throughout the nineteenth century, especially in its latter 
half, and which has culminated in the present conflagration. 
Human beings are neither purely angels nor merely devils, but 
a combination of both. The ruthless manifestations of the devil- 
ish nature are not limited to brutal warfare alone, but nations 
and individuals have exhibited the same disposition in com- 
mercial competition as well as in international rivalry. If 
humanity is not to be totally controlled by devils, can we not 
hope for a purging of human nature out of the gigantic struggle ? 



* Three interesting articles may be mentioned in this connection: 

K. Ukita, Japan and the Principle of International Democracy (in 

March number of Taiyo) ; J. Naruse, The Future Control of the "World — 

The Will to Might or the Will to Justice? (a pamphlet distributed freely) ; 

M. Anesaki, The Principles of Humanity, or Neo-Humanism (January 

number of the Chuo Koron). 



SPECIAL LECTURES 311 

As history teaches us, many a great war has rung the knell 
of a reign of confusion and conflict and has opened a new era 
of human civilization. Suffice it to cite the instances of the 
Thirty Years' War, out of which a new Europe emerged, the 
Europe of rationalism ; and the American Civil War, which has 
consolidated the Union more firmly than before on a national 
and moral basis. In the present war every belligerent is fighting 
for its interests, and is claiming a moral justification and advo- 
cating some ideal principles. Let us not be skeptical toward 
those claims, but hope that each and every nation engaged in 
the war will hold to its ideals, closely examine its own conscience, 
be purged from its former sins, and step forward toward a 
higher reconstruction of humanity with clean conscience and 
lofty aspirations. If this shall not occur, the world has nothing 
but to be left to the reign of devils. Yet I shall never lose con- 
fidence in the human, if not angelic, rule of humanity, but trust 
that the calamitous war will prove a step toward the purification 
and elevation of human life, in all its aspects, the individual, 
the family, the nation, and will perfect international relations 
and human solidarity. Let the United States and Japan, to- 
gether with all the allied nations, consolidate their joint efforts 
for the reconstruction of the world. 



CHARTER DAY EXERCISES 



CHARTER DAY EXERCISES 315 

CHARTER DAY 

Saturday, March the Twenty-third 

President wheeler: Fifty years ago today the Governor of 
California affixed his signature to the act creating this Univer- 
sity, and thereby, we as an institution came into existence. 
Governor Low in the period preceding the signing of the act had 
joined in the large plan which made this University a success, 
the act itself was signed by Governor Haight. 

I welcome here today the honorable successor of the Gov- 
ernors of this State, who since the day of Governor Low, have 
given their interest truly to the values of this University. I 
welcome here Governor Stephens. I welcome here the delegates 
of universities of like motive, who have assembled here to join 
with us in recognition of this significant act of fifty years ago. 
I welcome here with all the warmth of California hearts, I 
welcome here to our sunshine and our elbow room, these men 
who thought with us, and care for us ; that we may all together 
here assembled around the hearthstone of the earth like the 
Themale of the old Greek Theatre, join our hearts in loyalty 
toward not one university, but the cause which all universities 
all over the globe represent together. 

We have gone mostly our own way in the development of 
this institution; but as a college, before the University was 
founded fully, we learned most from Yale. Since we have 
been a State University we have undoubtedly learned most from 
the University of Michigan. 

The man who now stands at the head of that institution is 
to be our speaker this Charter Day, and I welcome him here 
and present him to you with more than ordinary feeling. He 
was my colleague at Cornell, and I have known him all the years 
since, and his being here means something in terms of a long 
friendship and common understanding. We can say that not 
alone personally, but as between institutions. 

I introduce to you a sound, sane man, universally beloved 
and trusted, a universitj^ man with his feet on the ground, with 
his eyes always towards the stars, a sound, sane man. I intro- 
duce to you President Hutchins. 



316 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 



CHARTER DAY ADDRESS 
Harry Burns Hutchins, Ph.B., LL.D. 

President of the University of Michigan 

I bring to you the greetings and the congratulations of a 
sister state university. Although separated by more than half 
the breadth of the continent there has always been a strong bond 
of sympathy and cooperation between the University of Califor- 
nia and the University of Michigan. The reasons for this are 
quite apparent. Both are state universities, universities sup- 
ported by the people for the people, for all the people, rich and 
poor alike. Again, while both are state universities, established 
and conducted primarily for the people of their respective states, 
they have a common cosmopolitan attitude and atmosphere. The 
doors of each are open to the youth of the world. All may come 
and with the assurance of a hearty welcome. And in the halls 
of each is found a cosmopolitan student body. But the prin- 
cipal reasons for the strength of the bond are doubtless to be 
found in the fact that the younger has been patterned to a 
certain extent after the older, and the further fact that she has 
not infrequently drawn upon the older for members of her 
teaching staff. 

Michigan is usually regarded as the oldest of the state univer- 
sities. The original university act was passed in 1837. In one 
or two of the states the provision for a state university bears an 
earlier date ; but although this is the fact Michigan was undoubt- 
edly the first to develop successfully and carry safely beyond 
the experimental period the state university idea. This she had 
done even when that idea was barely taking root in most of the 
states. For years she had the field. She was the pioneer. She 
blazed the trail. Under the circumstances it was only natural 
that those coming after should follow in a general way, at least, 
her lines of development. This you have done in California, 
and by reason of this there is between us a bond of mutual 
appreciation and sympathy. In your unprecedented growth and 



CHABTEB DAY EXEBCISE8 317 

development we have the pride and admiration of a parent. 
That you are in buildings and material equipment, in variety 
and richness of opportunities offered, and in intellectual leader- 
ship the peer of any university in the land, whether endowed 
or tax supported, none will question. And in this we rejoice. 

The occasion that summons us is not an ordinary one. It 
is full of significance, not only as regards this University but 
also as regards higher education generally as developed through 
state aid and federal grant. For this University it is an anni- 
versary that marks the closing of a half century of remarkable 
accomplishment. At the same time it celebrates the setting up 
of an important milestone upon the great highway of educational 
progress. 

To realize what has been achieved here in a material way 
in the very youth of the institution we have but to look about us. 
On every side buildings that represent the best in architectural 
design, in fitness for the purpose for which they were planned, 
and in solidity of structure meet the eye. They are substantial 
monuments made possible by the wise foresight and the bounty 
of this young and vigorous commonwealth and the generosity 
of private benefactors. Libraries and laboratories and scientific 
equipment of modern and approved design furnish in abundance 
the tools that thorough and productive scholarship in its manj'^ 
fields should have. But monuments and appliances such as 
these, while desirable and indeed necessary, do not by themselves 
alone constitute the real university whose work of fifty years we 
today celebrate. It has been said with truth that buildings, 
however stately and spacious, and equipment, however complete, 
do not of themselves make a university. The real university, the 
university that will endure even beyond the life of the material 
monuments that we see about us, is the intellectual and spiritual 
university, so to speak, the university that is, and that will con- 
tinue to be the creation of earnest and devoted and scholarlj^ 
men who give their lives to the discovery and teaching of truth. 
In the work of succeeding generations of such men and in the 
careers of those whose lives have been molded and inspired by 
their influence and unlifting example we have the real and 
enduring university. And in the fact that California has been 
able to attract and retain so large a number of distinguished 



318 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA 8EMICENTENABY 

scholars, men who stand for something worth while as investi- 
gators and teachers, we have the efficient cause of her leadership 
and the principal reason for extending to her upon this anni- 
versary our sincere congratulations. 

But, as suggested, the occasion that summons us is more than 
local in its significance. It brings to the front and thereby 
emphasizes ideas and ideals in the field of higher education, now 
Yery generally accepted, that half a century ago had won but 
scant recognition. It does this because it naturally makes 
prominent the origin and growth of the state university. 
Although the germ of the state university movement is doubtless 
to be found in the great Ordinance of 1787, its marvelous devel- 
opment covers little more than the life of the present generation. 
The notion that the support and fostering of higher education 
in all its branches are proper functions of the state has within 
a like period been accorded very general and substantial recog- 
nition through incorporation into organic law and statutory 
enactment. The extent of this recognition and the growth of 
the idea in its entirety are in some degree apparent when we 
remember that the material development and the intellectual life 
of this University are typical of the like in many other states 
and that in practically all substantial advancement along similar 
lines has been made. And so it has come about that, within the 
memory of many of those before me, the state university has 
become a prevailing force and influence in the field of higher 
learning. Measured by the numbers reached directly and 
indirectly through its work and instrumentalities and by the 
aggregate of its financial support it has undoubtedly come to 
be the dominant educational force of the Middle and Far "West. 

This occasion, then, being one that naturally emphasizes 
together with the purely local the broad view of educational 
progress as exemplified in the modem state university movement, 
I should, under normal conditions, occupy the time assigned to 
me in discussing with some degree of particularity the origin and 
development of the state university idea. But dominated as we 
are at present by national interests and questions that are of 
supreme and far reaching importance, one is impelled by feelings 
of patriotic duty to take advantage of every opportunity for the 
public discussion of some of the many problems that the world 



CHABTEB DAY EXEBCISES 3] 9 

war has thrust upon us. After simply referring, therefore, by- 
way of introduction, to the subject that, as the representative 
of the oldest of the state universities, I should, probably, under 
ordinary conditions, be expected to consider, I propose speaking 
upon 

The World War and Some of Its By-Products 

For weeks and perhaps months after the formal declaration 
of war we were not fully alive to the tremendous significance of 
the step. But we are beginning to realize it. We now know that 
what at first seemed a far-away struggle, in which our interest 
v/as, and apparently could be only that of a neutral, is at our 
very doors. We are now aroused to the gravity of the situation. 
That we are not only a part but an increasingly important part 
of the great conflict we are at last fully cognizant Many of 
our young men are already at the front and hundreds of 
thousands are preparing. Every activity is contributing its 
quota. Our universities are more than decimated. Every col- 
lege campus in the country has become a training ground, and 
every college and university laboratory has become a government 
workshop. Inspired by a spirit of patriotism and of loyalty and 
devotion to the ideals that made us a nation, teachers and 
students are rushing to the colors. Those that remain are only 
awaiting the call. With earnestness and enthusiasm rarely 
equalled and a patriotic devotion never before witnessed our 
students are either going or taking advantage of every oppor- 
tunity to fit themselves for effective service when the call comes. 
The knowledge that the future has in store for them sacrifices 
and hardships, for some, indeed, the supreme sacrifice, in no way 
daunts the brave youth of the land who gather for the Nation's 
defense and to fight for the Nation's honor. Splendid examples 
these of the spirit of democracy, the spirit that shall finally 
triumph and make the world safe for the development of the ideals 
of justice and equity for which true democracy stands. But this 
is not all. We are mobilizing for the public service not only 
the flower of our young manhood, but also the intellectual and 
material resources of the Nation, and upon a scale hitherto 
unprecedented and which but a few months ago would have 
been thought impossible. Moreover, we realize now that what 



320 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

we have done is only a beginning ; for we now know that a large 
part of the colossal burden is of necessity fast shifting to our 
shoulders; we now know that if our boundaries are to remain 
intact and if the world of the future is to be governed by broad 
and universal principles of right and justice and not by auto- 
cratic absolutism we must, with our allies, successfully bear the 
grave responsibilities imposed. We have dedicated ourselves, 
"everything that we are and everything that we have," to the 
cause ; and we shall continue so to do. God helping us we shall 
remain resolute and faithful to the end. No sacrifice will be too 
great if by making it we can hasten victory. 

But why are we in the war? Why are we, a prosperous, 
contented, and peace-loving people devoted, from choice and 
upon principle, to peace and all that it brings and far removed 
from the bloody fields of combat, why are we, I say, a part and 
a vitally important part of the great conflict ? Why the tremen- 
dous sacrifice of men and treasure surely in store for us? 

I make no apology for suggesting the reason. Briefly stated, 
we are in the war because the war was thrust upon us. It was 
not of our seeking. For months we forbore and choked down 
our wrath; for months we clung to shattered faith; but there 
came a time when we could no longer remain neutral and retain 
even a shred of self respect. Insult had followed insult until 
further forbearance became impossible. Autocracy had flouted 
us and its arch exponent was sneering at us, had planned to 
trample us under foot. We are in the war to safeguard our 
honor, to preserve our integrity as a nation, and to help free 
the civilized world from the last vestige of autocratic absolutism. 

These are general statements, but the important details of 
the indictment can be briefly summarized. Germany openly, 
brazenly, and notoriously held treaties to be "scraps of paper" 
and the principles of international law no longer binding when 
they interfered with her policy of might. It has been well said 
that she "snapped her mailed fingers at agreements making for 
decency in confiict." Dedicated to this policy, she not only 
repeatedly violated in her illegal, immoral, and inhuman sub- 
marine warfare well-settled principles to which she had expressly 
and impliedly given assent but she arrogantly and insolently 
repudiated a solemn promise made in answer to our repeated 



CHABTEE DAY EXEECISES 321 

protests. The ruthless crime of the "Lusitania" that sent to 
watery graves one hundred and fourteen Americans, lawfully 
traveling upon business or pleasure, and which merited an im- 
mediate declaration of war, she celebrated by a national holiday 
and commemorated in a brutally conceived and ugly medal. The 
practical answer to our notes of protest came a few months later 
when the "Arabic" was sent to the bottom and three more 
Americans were sacrificed. The later torpedoing of a crowded 
Channel ferry boat among whose passengers were many Ameri- 
cans prompted the declaration by our President that unless such 
nefarious acts were at once abandoned our diplomatic relations 
with the German Empire would be severed. This brought the 
promise that Germany would in the future refrain from sinking 
merchant vessels "without warning and without saving human 
lives, unless the ships attempted to escape or offer resistance." 
But the pledge was soon openly violated. We now know that it 
was made for a purpose and with no intention on the part of 
Germany of respecting its obligatory force. Its repudiation soon 
came in the form of a declaration that after a named date all 
ships entering a designated zone would be sunk at sight and 
without warning. 

Thus were protests and promise insolently thrust aside ; thus, 
with audacious assurance, was the world challenged. Even after 
this we waited. We tried armed neutrality : it failed. But overt 
acts that could no longer be overlooked or made the subject of 
diplomatic correspondence came quickly. In the short period of 
two months eight more American merchant ships and more than 
forty American lives were the toll of the submarine. But this 
was the end of hesitation. Further delay could not be justified. 
The American people demanded decisive action. Germany's 
repeated challenge was accepted. 

But while the brutal and indiscriminate submarine warfare 
was the immediate overt cause that forced us into war, there 
were other and compelling reasons that we cannot overlook if 
we would retain our self respect. They form no inconsiderable 
part of the real indictment. A brief reference to some of them 
is necessary if we are to make that document complete. As we 
suspected from the beginning and as subsequent disclosures 
revealed, Germany took advantage of our friendship and hos- 



322 VNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

pitality to maintain within our borders, as a part of her plan 
for world dominion, a most elaborate and ingenious system of 
espionage. We now know that its ramifications reached every 
grade of society and practically every public instrumentality. 
As another part of the same plan she had for years with con- 
summate skill and diabolical cunning, through highly organized 
insidious propaganda, sown seeds of discontent and divided 
loyalty, thereby seeking to undermine our institutions. With a 
like end in view she took advantage of the privileges freely 
granted her 'to use our territory as a base of conspiracy and 
treacherous hostilities against countries with which we were at 
peace." Her unremitting activity in Mexico and her attempts 
to foment difficulties and disputes between Japan and ourselves 
are well known. It has been conclusively shown that she had the 
brazen effrontery to promise to turn over to the former, a country 
with which we were at peace but whose active hostility against us 
she was seeking to arouse, designated parts of our domain. Fur- 
thermore, we now know that for months and perhaps for years 
before our declaration of war her American Embassy was a center 
of propaganda and dastardly intrigue. What more illuminating 
as to her methods and purposes than the request of her ambassa- 
dor, sent to the Imperial Government, for authority to expend 
''a large sum of money in order, as on former occasions," the 
message stated, 'Ho influence Congress through an organization" 
designated. Add to the foregoing the furnishing of bogus pass- 
ports to spies, the widespread destruction of property through 
explosions and incendiary fires, and the placing of bombs in ships 
sailing from American ports and you have a fairly comprehen- 
sive epitome of the overt acts that make up our indictment. But 
in its entirety, our indictment, as the American people are begin- 
ning to realize and appreciate, our real indictment, as it will go 
into history, is vastly more significant and comprehensive. It 
includes the direct acts against our dignity and sovereignty as 
a nation, to which reference has been made ; it includes also the 
list of black crimes and barbaric atrocities against humanity, 
encouraged and ordered by that dominating autocraey of might 
that would rule or ruin. The list is long and frightful in its 
details. You are familiar with it and with its horrors. Further 
reference is not necessary. 



CEABTEB DAY EXEBCI8ES 323 

There is then, I say, an all inclusive reason for our bearing 
our part in the great conflict, a reason that has to do not only 
with crimes against the Republic but also with crimes against 
humanity; that includes not only the defense of our integrity 
as a nation, but the defense also of the fundamental principles 
of democracy everywhere. The duty that this nation, the world's 
chief exponent of government by the people, owes to humanity 
and civilization cannot be fully discharged by any isolated policy 
of defense. Such a policy would be unworthy of us and of the 
ideals that we profess. We are in the war not only because our 
dignity as a nation has been outraged and because it is necessary 
for us to be in it for our defense and safety, but also for the 
larger reason that the issue involves the very existence here and 
elsewhere of democracy itself. Germany defies the world and 
would master the world. Her victory would mean the domina- 
tion of the rule of might; it would mean the destruction of 
democratic ideals in European civilization and possibly in the 
civilization of the whole world; it might mean the beginning of 
the end of government by the people everywhere. In fighting the 
battles for democracy, then, ''over there," we are fighting for 
its life and safety everywhere ; and this is our duty. 

In the reasons that thrust us into the conflict we find the 
ends for which we are battling. These do not include territorial 
expansion or the vindictive punishment of an enemy; we have 
no world-dominion ambition to satisfy and the principles to 
which we are committed do not tolerate vindictive warfare. 
Neither do the ends sought include the imposition of any par- 
ticular form of government upon a conquered foe. If the 
German people wish to continue to be puppets of the Hohen- 
zoUern autocracy, we shall not interfere nor even protest so long 
as they and their leaders desist from attacking those whose gov- 
ernment is grounded in the sovereignty of the people. But the 
ends for which we are fighting do include the sweeping away 
forever of military absolutism and the establishment of perma- 
nent foundations for the peace of the world. And we are 
unalterably determined that this war shall not end until the 
ideals of democracy are forever safe from the onslaught of 
armed and unrestrained selfishness, until military domination 
has become an impossibility, and until government by the people 



324 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

for all nations that wish it, great and small alike, is recognized 
by autocracy, if it shall continue to exist, as a solemn right. 

Until these ends are realized and until we can be assured 
that ample reparation will be made by the invaders for the 
tremendous wrongs inflicted and the wholesale destruction and 
devastation wrought let us not talk of peace. A compromise 
peace would surely result in elaborate preparation for a renewal 
of the struggle. It would mean the sacrifice of ideals and prob- 
ably the ultimate triumph of absolutism. It would leave "the 
promoting cause of the present awful war unaffected and un- 
removed." The only peace that will be permanent and worth 
while will be the peace that will follow our complete and crushing 
victory. Anything short of this would be treated with contempt 
by the Teutonic powers and used only as a subterfuge. Renewed 
intrigue and plans for world dominion would inevitably follow. 
Respecting only the authority of brute force, Prussian autocracy, 
the dominating factor in the contest, can be trusted only when 
pounded into complete submission. Until that time comes there 
shall be no peace. This I believe to be our attitude as a nation. 

But we should not be misunderstood. It is not the Germany 
of Goethe and Schiller and Heine and Beethoven that we fight, 
not the Germany that has given to the world the great creative 
masters, but it is the Germany of materialism, the Germany of 
blood and iron, the Germany that would first terrorize and crush 
and then rule the world, the Germany born of the soulless 
philosophy that "might makes right." To fight a nation that 
has gone mad, whose only God is the God of War, its own 
weapons must be used. 

As the war must go on the great and immediate object must 
be the winning of it. There can be no doubt or uncertainty as 
to this. But while aU that we are and aU that we have must 
be continuously and unreservedly dedicated to the great cause 
until victory is complete, we must not lose sight of the fact that 
the confiict has its by-products. They are and will be in the 
form of dangers to be shunned, of lessons to be driven home, of 
relations to be readjusted, and, in the end, of reconstruction to 
an extent and of a variety that the world has never yet known. 
It would seem to be the part of wisdom, even while the clouds 
of battle are hovering about us and while our predominant 



CHABTEB BAY EXEBCISES 325 

energies are being given to the destructive work of war, that we 
should look ahead and, so far as possible, prepare for the con- 
structive work of peace. I beg your indulgence, therefore, while 
I consider briefly a few of the perils and problems that the war 
thrusts upon us. 

And, first, I call your attention to the fact that there may 
be dangers that should be guarded against even in the great 
victory that is surely in store for us. By this statement I do not 
mean that there may be dangers in the victory itself, but rather 
that there may be dangers in the effect that it may have upon us 
as a nation. To realize this, we must get a clear conception of 
what the democracy is, for which we are fighting. That an 
unregulated and unrestrained democracy may become autocratic 
in spirit and in acts, and finally through the personal ambition 
of leaders, be changed into an instrument of absolutism, is a 
well known lesson of history. I am sure that it is not for 
this democracy that we are making our sacrifices. It is rather 
for democracy as exemplified in our American Republic, the 
democracy that has been a model since its establishment for the 
millions who have been struggling for liberty through govern- 
ment by the people. What is this democracy and how character- 
ized ? And why may dangers for it be lurking even in victory ? 

The chief characteristic of American democracy is found in 
the combination of regulating and restraining qualities embodied 
in its organic law. Being a democracy simply, without a consti- 
tutional system of checks and balances, might have made us a 
nation for a brief period, provided our territory had remained 
inconsiderable in extent and our population small, but a 
democracy unregulated and unrestrained would never have per- 
manently survived. In a pure democracy, a democracy based 
simply upon the repudiation of autocratic power and the 
unrestrained exercise of authority by the people, there can be 
neither safety nor permanency. It has been said with truth that 
"a democracy that sets no bounds to its own arbitrary will, a 
democracy that is based on impulse and appetite and not on 
reason and justice is for any community an illusion and a 
danger." The unprecedented success of our experiment, then, 
did not come from a repudiation of the autocratic system and 
the leaving of unrestrained and unregulated sovereignty with 



326 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

the people. The real, underlymg, fundamental reason for it, 
lacking which we must long ere this have failed, is found in the 
fact that the unlimited and unrestricted powers of a pure 
democracy were with us restricted and regulated by constitu- 
tional limitations and provisions. Fortunate was it that the 
fathers had the wisdom to discern that permanent liberty can be 
secured, even in a democracy, only through a constitutional system 
of representative government, a system that defines and limits 
the exercise of official authority and at the same time secures to 
the people the really essential rights of free men. "While 
through judicial and practical interpretation of organic law 
there has been, particularly in recent years, a growing tendency 
toward the centralization of authority the process has not met 
with public favor, nor has it gone so far as to undermine or 
change materially the fundamental regulating and restraining 
principles of our democracy. Its essential characteristics remain. 
And this is the democracy for which we are fighting. How can 
the principles for which it stands be endangered by victory? 

It is possible, but I thank God not probable, that danger to 
the Republic may come through the centralization of power and 
the great military establishment made necessary by the part that 
we must take in the world conflict. Since the birth of our 
nation our policy has been against war ; it has been against com- 
pulsory military training and service. For safety from foreign 
foes we have relied upon our isolation. In order to guard to 
the fullest extent possible against troubles and entanglements 
abroad, no mixing in European affairs and no foreign alliances 
became early a settled and fixed policy. Under this traditional 
attitude we have prospered; but we have failed to realize that 
we were becoming a world power and liable to be thrust into 
world troubles. And now that the storm has burst we find our- 
selves unprepared. Prussian imperialism would dominate us. 
For our own defense and to guard the nation's honor, as well as 
for the sake of humanity, a great army must be raised, equipped, 
trained, and rushed to the front across the water in the shortest 
possible time. We now realize that oceans on either side of us 
not only do not protect as formerly from foreign invasion, but 
that they are, by reason of modern implements of war, positive 
aids to an enemy. We are beginning to appreciate that we are 



CHABTEB BAY EXEBCISES 327 

open today to attacks by instrumentalities that even a decade ago 
were but dreams. Squadrons of the air, squadrons upon the 
water, and squadrons under the water must now be reckoned 
with. We now realize that traditional policies must yield to new 
conditions ; that military and naval preparation upon a scale so 
vast that nothing of the kind in our history even begins to 
approach it must be made. Within the compass of a few months 
we must be prepared to meet an enemy whose chief business has 
been war, an enemy that for more than a generation has been 
preparing for the present conflict. To do this the resources of 
the nation both in men and treasure must be forthcoming as 
called. They must be subject to the government's command. 
Furthermore, to accomplish successfully this tremendous under- 
taking centralization of authority to an extent never before 
known in our history is an absolute necessity. To win the war 
little short of the powers of the dictator must be delegated to the 
administration. And all this is being done. At the nation's 
call billions pour into the public treasury to be appropriated for 
the cause. Recognizing the necessity Congress wisely confers 
vast powers upon the President. To meet a great emergency 
the authority of the Chief Executive is enlarged by legislative 
action to a degree unprecedented. To win the war these extra- 
ordinary expenditures must be made and authority to plan and 
act must be centralized. Such are necessary prerequisites of the 
victory that will make American democracy triumphant. 

But when the day of victory comes, and may it soon come, 
the American people will fully realize that their contribution to 
the grand result could never have been made but for the 
abandonment, for war purposes, of traditional policies and the 
substitution therefor of policies that would assure, in the shortest 
possible time, the largest degree of immediate preparedness; in 
other words, that our safety as a nation and our national honor 
and the principles for which we stand have been preserved by 
our large, well equipped, and brave army and navy acting in 
harmony with the forces of our allies, an army and navy made 
possible only through the loyalty of the people , and the central- 
ized authority of the nation. 

And what may &e the result of this realization? Note, please, 
that I ask what may te, not what will be. I need not say to you 



328 UNIVEBSITJ OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

that nations, like individuals, naturally glorify success and extol 
the means by which it has been attained. Victorious heroes of 
battle, whether upon land or sea, become the heroes of the people. 
The great chieftains whose bravery and skill as leaders have 
made final and complete triumph possible are always the men 
of the hour. The victorious army and the conquering navy 
naturally and properly become the pride of the nation. The 
men who stand and will stand between us and crushing defeat 
and humiliation and possible Teutonic invasion can never receive 
from their countrymen too generous a meed of praise or too 
much honor; we shall never forget the story of their patriotism, 
their bravery and their sacrifices; it will be a thrilling chapter 
in the history of the Republic ; monuments and enduring tablets 
will perpetuate it. But while we join in celebrating victory and 
in honoring those who have made victory possible let us not 
forget that all of the sacrifices of the great struggle have been 
made for lasting peace and not for the glories of war. 

That there may be a menace in a great military establishment 
such as we shall have when hostilities are over and in the fact 
that that establishment has been the result of the exercise of 
centralized authority such as the country has never before 
known, is a conclusion warranted by the lessons of history. 
Conditions will surely offer opportunities for unscrupulous and 
ambitious leadership, leadership that will be ready to sacrifice 
democratic initiative and control and will urge as a reason that 
governmental efficiency and preparedness, as indicated by our 
victories, require a greater permanent centralization of authority 
and the greater subordination of the individual to the demands 
of the state. While there is here a menace and a possible danger, 
and while we shall in the future, if we are wise, insist upon a 
degree of centralized authority and preparedness that will afford 
adequate protection, the good sense of the American people will, 
I believe, save us from the peril of extreme changes. They will 
recognize, I am sure, the possible danger suggested and guard 
against it. They will never consent to anything savoring of 
arbitrary or military domination. I have faith in their devotion 
to the ideals of democracy as embodied in the organic law of 
state and nation; they will never sanction a radical departure 
therefrom. 



CEABTEB DAY EXEECISES 329 

But danger from the results of over centralization will doubt- 
less be slight as compared with that which the opposite extreme 
threatens. With emphasis constantly placed upon democracy, 
the term will naturally be used, as it is often used today as a 
«over by those who resent governmental regulation or restraint 
of any kind. They will undoubtedly take advantage of the 
readjustment period to defy constituted authority. One of the 
by-products of the great conflict is sure to be renewed and per- 
sistent effort to bring about a social and economic revolution. 
It is quite apparent that the forces are already marshalling. The 
rallying cry will be democracy, the sovereignty of the people 
not only in governmental affairs but in all the relations of life; 
but it will be democracy unrestrained, unregulated, without 
legally constituted leadership, without the leadership of repre- 
sentative authority. And such demcroacy, whether applied in 
government, in the industries, in education, or in any of the 
great relations of life means anarchy. That the peoriod of the 
war offers ideal conditions for social and industrial conspiracy 
on the part of the restless and irresponsible, and even for overt 
acts, we have abundant evidence. Hundreds of thousands of 
our loyal young men have been called to the defense of the 
country, and hundreds of thousands more must follow. Not 
infrequently their places have been filled by aliens and others 
who are both ignorant and hostile to the established order. That 
this will to a considerable extent continue to be the practice we 
cannot doubt. In dealing with such people we are not dealing 
with American workmen but with ''muscle and brawn to which 
American jobs have been given." Our railroads and our 
strategic industries are largely manned by the foreign con- 
tingent. This was the case before the declaration of war, but 
it is increasingly so now, and it may be expected to continue. 
Doubtless some are friendly and will become loyal citizens; but 
of the attitude of the great majority we know nothing and can 
know nothing, under present methods, until acts of lawlessness 
reveal it. That large numbers are collecting wages even in 
American munition plants who are hostile to our institutions 
either through ignorance or evil leadership and who for the 
safety of the country should be interned, is doubtless true. From 
such as these the American Bolsheviki are recruited; but not 



330 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

from these alone, for, unfortunately, in the ranks of the agitators 
are many who in name, at least, are American citizens. Under 
various appellations and with different avowed purposes they are 
all really working for a common object, which, if attained, means 
the destruction of responsible government, the disrupting of the 
settled order, and the paralyzing of the industrial life of the 
nation. These are people who oppose efforts for defense and 
cooperation in the present crisis, who are ready when ordered 
by irresponsible and designing leaders to clog the wheels of 
business and industry whatever may be the result. It is from 
this source largely that come the cries for peace, when there 
can be no peace but the peace of submission. If the signs of the 
times indicate one thing more clearly than another it would seem 
to be that we are facing as one of the by-products of the great 
struggle the danger of a social and industrial and political 
upheaval such as the world has never known. Unless immediate 
and vigorous and continuous steps are taken to prevent it, 
democracy run mad will surely be the peril of the not distant 
future. That it may be averted by timely awakening and 
vigorous action is a consummation devoutly to be wished. 

I firmly believe that we are entering upon a new era of 
Americanism which will prove to be a most important by-product 
of the world conflict. Because of that conflict, we are, if I mis- 
take not, awakening to the fact that the policy of the open door 
to aliens with practically no restrictions and safeguards is 
radically wrong. Coming in large numbers and with many 
among them, probably a majority, at the present time, who are 
neither fitted for citizenship nor interested in taking the neces- 
sary steps to secure it, they are an element that may become 
dangerous even in time of peace. In times of great national 
crises they are a menace of grave proportions. While we recog- 
nize that no small degree of our prosperity and of what we are 
as a nation has been due to the fact that our population has from 
time to time been largely increased from foreign sources, we are 
beginning to see that our liberality in giving to all that come the 
opportunities of the country without exacting compensating 
obligations has been a mistake fraught with serious consequences. 
We have neglected to find out, and seemingly to care about the 
general intentions and the citizen intentions of those who have 



CHABTEB BAY EXEBCISES 331 

come. We have had no nationally organized means of getting 
this and other important information in regard to the individual 
make-up of this great and mixed contingent. In this particular 
field we have had practically no plans for the shaping of our 
destiny. We have seen this vast and constantly increasing army 
pouring through our ports of entry, and we have known, if we 
have given the situation even the most casual attention, that the 
great majority have come simply for the wages that they could 
earn and their supposed freedom from restraint. We have seen 
all this, and yet we have done nothing in the way of effective 
and sane regulation. Even our attempts at Americanization 
have been sporadic and anything but comprehensive. We have 
yielded supinely to the industrial claim of economic necessity, 
without apparently realizing the danger and without providing 
against it. We have done this without appreciating that even a 
twentieth century industrial America cannot safely build upon 
a purely economic foundation ; that if she is to cope successfully 
with industrial discontent and conspiracy she must have also a 
substantial basis in the general intelligence of employees and in 
their knowledge of, and loyalty to the fundamental principles 
of our institutions. And what have been the results of this 
policy of neglect and indifference 1 An alien population greater 
than that of any other country on the face of the globe, a popu- 
lation made up to a very large extent of people who are foreign 
to us and especially to our ideals. They are with us and so far 
as opportunities are concerned they are upon a par with Ameri- 
can citizens of the same intelligence and training. Excepting 
for taxation, if they accumulate property, and that they are 
subject to the laws of the land they are free from public burden 
or obligation of any kind. They have all the opportunities and 
all the protection that the country affords. And yet when danger 
threatens and our young men are summoned to the colors their 
alienage protects. Is there justice in all this, justice to our own 1 
Is there equity in it? Do the principles of democracy that we 
profess require or sanction it? Not, certainly, if democracy 
means the fair adjustment of opportunity and burden. That the 
time is ripe for the inaugurating of a new and vigorous policy 
that will effectively exclude the unfit and prescribe the character 
of, and, except upon special privilege granted, limit the period 



332 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

of alien residence, must now be apparent. Eemembering recent 
disclosures in regard to the number and attitude and the length 
of residence of alien enemies in public places of strategic im- 
portance we cannot fail to realize the necessity of prompt and 
comprehensive legislation that will go to the root of the difficulty. 
The public declaration of our militant and heroic ex-President 
upon this subject that when made seemed startling and radical 
no longer shocks. It has in it the true ring and contains the 
essence of a sound and wise policy. It was in substance this: 
that every alien coming to this country should come under bond, 
conditioned that within a specified time after his arrival he shall 
learn the English language and take steps toward becoming a 
citizen, the penalty for failure in either particular being depor- 
tation. Let us hope that out of the various alien bills proposed, 
a vigorous, wise, consistent, equitable, and safe policy, covering 
the whole subject, may be evolved. 

But the Americanism, my friends, that the war is developing 
demands more. It calls also for a new, definite, and comprehen- 
sive conception of citizenship, particularly as applied to the 
naturalized alien; a conception so definite and comprehensive 
that it precludes forever the notion of dual allegiance. This will 
mean the change of naturalization laws and of treaties, and the 
exercise of greater care in administering the laws. Let us insist 
upon such changes as will banish for all time this illogical and 
vicious doctrine. American loyalty shall be indivisible. If we 
are to escape in the future the perils that now threaten, this must 
be our unalterable attitude. The principle must be definitely 
recognized in our treaties. Let us make it forever impossible for 
any nation, as was done by Germany as a part of her scheme for 
world dominion, to permit a subject naturalized in the United 
States to remain also a citizen of the country whose citizenship 
he has solemnly renounced. The world must be made to under- 
stand and those seeking citizenship must be made to understand 
that there is no room here for hyphenated allegiance. 

Furthermore, the new Americanism of which I speak has to 
do also with a revised conception on the part of all of us, whether 
native or foreign born, of the real significance of citizenship. An 
awakening by a great crisis like the present was perhaps neces- 
sary. Years of peace had given us a sense of security and years 



CHABTEB DAY EXEBCISES 333 

of unprecedented prosperity a feeling of independence that were 
causing us to forget that citizenship means obligation and sacri- 
fice as well as privilege and opportunity. Under any form of 
government this is true, but it is particularly so in a democracy. 
The relation between the citizen and the government is essentially 
one of compensation. As the price of success in the ordinary 
affairs of life is effective and sustained effort, so as between 
citizen and government the price of privilege and opportunity 
and protection is loyalty, effective and sustained service, and, 
when necessary, sacrifice. Under the autocratic system the obli- 
gation of which I speak is imposed and not infrequently is out 
of all proportion to the protection and privilege accorded. It 
is an obligation because the governing power makes it so, not 
because the citizen consents. There is no equitable mutuality 
in the relationship. But in a democracy the obligation of com- 
pensatory service and sacrifice for the protection and privileges 
enjoyed is self imposed. It is a part of the compact, an essential 
part. Without it government by the people, for the people, must 
miserably fail; its comer-stone would be lacking. Democracy 
at its best, the ideal democracy, means the willing and prompt 
performance by every citizen of public duties, and the 
assumption on the part of every citizen of his share of public 
responsibilities and public burdens. It means, further, extra- 
ordinary sacrifices, the extreme sacrifice, . it may be, if public 
stress and public peril demand so much. 

All this the great war has thrust upon us. We now realize 
as never before the sigTiificance of it all. Through the mobilizing 
of the great national army, through voluntary enlistments in 
every branch of the service, and the unprecedented demand upon 
the financial resources of the country, the notion of duty, of 
obligation, and of sacrifice as essential elements of citizenship 
has come home to every one of us. Instead of being money-mad, 
luxury-loving, wasteful, and indifferent to public obligations, we 
are beginning, I trust, to appreciate at their true value the stem 
and homely and self-sacrificing virtues of the fathers. Such 
appreciation the New Americanism exacts. 

Among other and the last of the immediate results of present 
conditions is a dawning realization by the American people of 
the fact that we are a world power. In possibility we have been 



334 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

such from the first; actually we have been such for at least a 
generation. Vast in extent, comprising within its boundaries 
states that in territory and resources are really empires, our 
country today in achievement and opportunity is, perhaps, all 
things considered, without a parallel. Starting with a few scat- 
tered settlements on the eastern coast, we soon spanned the 
continent. Great cities, centers of wealth, of vast business 
interests, and of industrial activity, have sprung up as if by 
magic. American enterprise, American capital, and American 
efficiency have pushed great avenues of commerce from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific, from our northern-most boundary to the 
waters of the Gulf. These and their branches now practically 
cover the land. City and country, the East and the West, the 
North and the South, in a word, all parts of our vast territory 
and all of our varied activities are thus brought together, so to 
speak, by the ties of neighborhood. Isolation is no longer pos- 
sible ; cooperation, with all that it signifies, is easy. Through the 
practical application of the discoveries of science, the industries 
have been revolutionized, their number and extent enormously 
increased, and their products multiplied even beyond the dream 
of the extreme enthusiast. Our natural resources in variety and 
extent exceed probably those of any other nation. As yet we 
have hardly begun their development. For the support of over 
one hundred millions of people only a fraction of our soil is 
intensively cultivated. It has been estimated that if our avail- 
able land were properly worked we might easily support the 
world. Even under present conditions we cheerfully consent 
and confidently expect, in addition to supplying our own needs, 
to meet and solve, so far as necessary, the food problem of our 
allies. Although the output of our mines is enormous and 
although it each year shows an increase the danger of exhaustion 
seemis indefinitely removed. No nation is now our equal in 
wealth and financial recources. At present we are the clearing- 
house of the world and bid fair so to continue. 

We are a world power not only because of the extent of our 
territory, our wealth, our constructive energy, and our general 
efficiency, but also because of the part that we have taken in the 
development of a sane and safe democracy and the part that we 
must in the future take in the establishing and making per- 



CHABTEB DAY EXEBCISE8 335 

petual, along similar lines, of world ideals. While entangling 
foreign alliances should still be avoided, a policy that would 
exclude us from participation in a council of nations, from taking 
part in the settlement of world questions would today be not 
only unwise but, in view of present conditions, impossible. 

The responsibilities that as a world power we must assume 
and carry are, and will continue to be momentous. "We must 
teach ourselves and the rising generation to think internationally, 
for a vast number of international questions will confront us. 
No small part of the burden of reconstruction after the frightful 
devastation ceases and the work of disorganization is at an end, 
will fall upon us. The problems of the small nation will in- 
evitably be ours. By common consent we shall be named adviser 
and guardian. Even Russia, if we are to judge from present 
conditions, in the reconstruction of her shattered national life 
will be in sore need of the advice and guidance of a reliable next 
friend. The responsibility of the trust will naturally fall to us. 
The duty of preparation for the world work that is surely in 
store for us is national and international in extent, and its 
importance cannot be overestimated. 

But in all of our preparation we shall not lose sight of the 
supreme problem of the hour, the winning of the war. Our great 
objective is Berlin. Let us never for a moment forget it. Until 
attained, no sacrifice of blood and treasure will be too great. 
That the terms of peace will be dictated by the allies in the 
home of the great autocrat is no idle dream. At the council table 
of the Powers, the representatives of the Republic of the West 
will be heard. Their place will be second to none. In that great 
conference whose function it will be to determine the principles 
upon which the civilization of the future shall be developed they 
will exercise a commanding influence. That they will never in 
the deliberations lose sight for an instant of the fact that America 
fought that the world might have peace and that democracy 
might live we have not the shadow of a doubt. And that the 
final result of it all will be a League of Nations that will insure 
future and permanent peace let us confidently hope and expect. 



336 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 



CONFERRING OF HONORARY DEGREES 

President wheeler : It is the desire of the Regents to signal 
this occasion by the conferring of certain honorary degrees. 
Will the members of the faculty find and bring here the men 
who should be honored? 

Professor george c. edwards: Mr. President, I have the 
honor to present to you for recognition by the University of 
California, William Thomas Reid, a graduate of Harvard, the 
founder of Belmont School, at one time President of this Uni- 
versity, and veteran of the Civil War. 

President vpheeler: By authority of the Regents of the 
University of California I readmit you to this community of 
scholars, conferring upon you the degree of Doctor of Laws. 
William Thomas Reid: a sturdy man; guide and mentor of 
youth. 

Professor w. c. jones : Mr. President, I present to you for 
recognition by the University of California Bernard Moses, 
formerly Professor of History and Political Science in the 
University of California, member of the U. S. Philippine Com- 
mission, delegate to the Pan-American Congress at Santiago, 
Chile, and delegate to the International Conference at Buenos 
Ayres, the author of a work on Spanish American History, at 
present Professor Emeritus of Political Science in the University 
of California. 

President wheeler : Professor Moses, this is a great occasion 
for us ; for many years you carried a load here, a heavy load in 
the interests of this institution; and by authority vested in me 
by the Regents of the University of California, I confer upon 
you the degree of Doctor of Laws, with all the honors and privi- 
leges appertaining thereto ; chief est among them I hope you will 
count is the association with this host of teachers within the 
college barriers. Bernard Moses : a publicist of high intellectual 
clarity ; unfriendly toward shams. 

The chairman : I wish Professor Stephens to bring his can- 
didate. 



CHABTEB DAY EXERCISES 337 

Professor Stephens: Mr. President, I present to you for 
recognition by the University of California William Milligan 
Sloane, Seth Low Professor of History in Columbia University, 
New York City, since 1896, Research Professor of History since 
that date, and Chancellor of the American Academy of Arts and 
Letters. 

President wheeler : Professor Sloane, I hope you will take 
back with you our greetings to Columbia. We have like prob- 
lems oftentimes and different ones at other times; but at any 
rate I am glad to welcome you here, and to tell you that by the 
authority of the Regents of the University of California I am 
asked to confer upon you as a recognition of the many services 
you have performed the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws. 
William Milligan Sloane : historian, man of letters, sympathetic 
with the life and interest of the young. 

The chairman : Professor Kurtz will bring a candidate. 

Professor kurtz : Mr. President, I present to you for recog- 
nition by the University of California James Henry Breasted, 
a member of the Imperial Commission to copy and arrange the 
Egyptian inscriptions of the Egyptian dictionary, Director of 
the Egyptian exhibition of the University of Chicago, Professor 
of Egyptology and Oriental History, and Director of the Haskell 
Museum, University of Chicago. 

President wheeler : Professor Breasted, you have been here 
amongst us in these last days like one of our body, and I am 
glad to carry out the wishes of the Regents of the University of 
California in admitting you to the membership of this committee 
of scholars by the conferring upon you of the degree of Doctor 
of Laws. James Henry Breasted: master in a wide, rich field 
of human life; competent to find and to interpret. 

The CHAIRMAN: Professor Le Conte will bring a candidate. 

Professor le conte : Mr. President, I have the honor to 
present for recognition by the University of California Charles 
David Marks, formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at Cornell 
University and at the University of Wisconsin, Past President 
of the American Society of Civil Engineers, and at present head 
of the Department of Civil Engineering and Acting President of 
Leland Stanford Junior University. 



338 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

President wheeler : Professor Marks, we welcome you here 
gladly in your representative capacity and also for yourself, for 
we have known you, many of us, long years, and know whereof 
and wherein we act when basing our action upon data. We 
admit you today to our fellowship, and I confer upon you the 
degree of Doctor of Laws, in accordance with the wish of the 
Regents of this University. Charles David Marks : a good engi- 
neer, gifted with good will. 

The CHAIRMAN: Professor Hyde will bring a candidate. 

Professor hyde : Mr. President, I have the honor to present 
to you for recognition by the University of California George 
Fillmore Swain, Gordon McKay Professor of Civil Engineering 
of Harvard University, previously Hayward Professor of Civil 
Engineering of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Past 
President of the American Society of Civil Engineers, and Presi- 
dent of the Society for the Promotion of Civil Engineering; 
Consulting Engineer for the Massachusetts Railroad Commission 
for twenty -seven years; member of the Boston Transit Commis- 
sion for twenty-four years, and its chairman for the last five 
years; consulting engineer on many very important public and 
private enterprises. 

President wheeler : Professor Swain, your credentials seem 
to be abundant, but I shall admit you today to this degree think- 
ing, as I do so, of certain lessons in algebra many years ago, and 
so George Fillmore Swain, in compliance and fulfilment of the 
duty vested upon me by the Regents of the University of 
California, I admit you to the degree of Doctor of Laws of this 
University. George Fillmore Swain: fulfiling in maturity the 
promise of a straightforward youth; engineer, teacher, public 
servant. 

The chairman : Professor Chinard will bring a candidate. 

Professor chinard : Mr. President, I present to you Charles 
Cestre of the University of Bordeaux, Professor of English Liter- 
ature, and special representative of the French Government. He 
was one of the first French scholars to pursue his studies in an 
American University, and received the degree of Master of Arts, 
Harvard University. 

President wheeler: Professor Cestre, there is an unusual 
significance moving through this essemblage today, having refer- 



CHABTEB DAY EXEBCISES 339 

ence to your presence here. You are fortunately equipped and 
of fortunate experience toward aiding and bringing an inter- 
community of view between the nations which you and I repre- 
sent. These are hard and trying days, but we are remembering 
in the midst of them old alliances. You came here as a French 
scholar, but are known, however, in our institutions of learning ; 
you can aid us to see with eyes wide. Charles Cestre, I admit 
you to the degree of Doctor of Laws, in accordance with the 
express will of the managing board of this University. Charles 
Cestre: the living embodiment of a new, quickened friendship 
between old friends. 

The chairman : Professor Armes will bring a candidate. 

Professor armes : Mr. President, I present to you for recog- 
nition by the University of California, Masaharu Anesaki, of 
the Imperial University of Tokyo ; a graduate of that University 
who has spent years of study in Europe and India, and who was 
recalled to his Alma Mater as Professor of Comparative Religion, 
which position he still holds. From 1913 to 1915 he was exchange 
Professor of Philosophy of Harvard University. 

President wheeler: Professor Anesaki, you are fortunate 
in your training and equipment, fortunate to be of help in these 
days. Our peoples are neighbors and only the highway is 
between us, and it is absolutely required and necessary that 
living here we should know each other and live amicably together, 
and you can be a great help because you can see from both views, 
having been so trained and so experienced as you are. I there- 
fore gladly carry out the wishes of the Regents of this institution 
in conferring upon you the degree of Doctor of Laws, which 
admits you to the fellowship of this University. Masaharu 
Anesaki : a Japanese scholar, fortunately equipped for an under- 
standing of the American mind. 

The chairman : Will Professor Robertson bring a candidate ? 

Professor Robertson : Mr. President, I have the honor to 
present to you for recognition by the University of California 
Franklin Fairchild Wesbrook. He was Professor of Pathology 
in the University of Manitoba, Dean of the Faculty in Medicine 
and Surgery in the University of Minnesota, and at the present 
time President of the University of British Columbia. 



340 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA 8EMICENTENABY 

PBEsroENT WHEELER : President Wesbrook, we are near akin, 
and the line that separates us is a political line ; it is clear that 
we have difficulties to share and problems to share; we must 
know each other. We appreciate your coming here to us on this 
occasion, and I am glad to carry out the mandates of the 
Board of Regents in conferring upon you the honorary degree 
of Doctor of Laws, not for its name or its form, but for the 
reason that it brings you into the association of this community 
of scholars; and I trust you may quicken that association by 
years. Franklin Fairchild Wesbrook : our nearest of kin across 
the line ; in person and thought a bond of sympathy between us. 

The chairman : Will Professor Merrill bring a candidate ? 

Professor merrill: I present, Mr. President, to you for 
recognition by the University of California Mr. Yung Yu Yen, 
who after graduation from the University of Edinburgh was 
principal of the Agricultural College of Suchow, Industrial Com- 
missioner to the United States, and is now Educational Commis- 
sioner in charge of the Chinese Government students in this 
country and investigator of the educational systems in the United 
States. 

President wheeler : Mr. Yen, you are engaged in a hopeful 
task; more than any one else you seem now to represent the 
growing friendship between China and this country, representing 
as you do the administration of the Boxer indemnity. We hope 
that is not a matter of dollars but is a matter of heart. We mean 
well. We desire to help. I therefore in conformity with the 
wishes of the Regents of the University confer upon you the 
degree of Doctor of Laws : Yung Yu Yen : entrusted with an 
international task of highest promise for blending the farthest 
East with the farthest West. 

The CHAIRMAN: Will Professor Kent bring a candidate? 

Professor kent : I have the honor to present for recognition 
by the University of California Dr. Henry Suzzallo, graduate 
of Leland Stanford Junior and Columbia University, formerly 
Professor of Philosophy of Columbia University, and at the 
present time President of the University of Washington and 
Chairman of Washington State Council of Defense. 

President wheeler: President Suzzallo you represent on 
this coast two institutions of value to us. We hardly know which 



CHABTEB DAT EXEBCISES 341 

one of them we ought to beat. I welcome you to the potency of 
the situation in Washington and for what Stanford means in 
this vicinity. I am sorry that the railroad fare was a little 
higher than that to Berkeley, so that you went to Stanford, and 
yet we will recognize you gladly as a neighbor from there. It is 
the desire of the Regents of the University of California to honor 
you on this occasion by opening to you the associations of this 
society of scholars here at Berkeley and so I carry out their 
wish gladly myself, and confer upon you the degree of Doctor 
of Laws. Henry Suzzallo : the spirited interpreter of California 
to the great Northwest. 

The chairman : Will Professor Leuschner bring a candidate ? 

Professor leuschner: Mr. President, I present to you for 
recognition by the University of California Albert Ross Hill, 
President of the University of Missouri. He was formerly 
Director of the Psychological Laboratory at the University of 
Nebraska and Dean of Teachers College in the University of 
Missouri. He was Director of the School of Education and Dean 
of the College of Arts and Sciences at Cornell University. 

President wheeler : Professor Hill you represent to us not 
the provinces, nor Vermont, nor Cornell, but we have known of 
you in these relations. Just now we are thinking of this world 
of ours we call California, whose central valleys were occupied 
by the Pike people from Pikes County and from other counties 
of Missouri. It is fine to have you here and to have you one 
of us, and so I tell you what the Regents have told me, that there 
should be conferred upon you this day the degree of Doctor of 
Laws, and I gladly carry that out. Albert Ross Hill : a sensible 
expounder and exponent of modern education. 

The chairman: Will Professor Lawson bring a candidate? 

Professor lawson: Mr. President, I present to you for 
recognition by the University of California Charles Richard 
Van Hise, I^resident of the University of Wisconsin and some- 
time Professor of Geology at that University, and for many years 
geologist of the United States Geological Survey, also trustee 
for the American Foundation for the Advancement of Teachers 
since 1909. Now President of the University of Wisconsin, 
publicist, and notable writer on public things. 



342 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

President wheeler: President Van Hise, the University of 
Wisconsin has duties toward its state comparable to those which 
we here are aware of. We have had all the vices of the higher 
education and research committed to us by the state. Therein 
are we alike and in many other things our toils and our pleasures 
are alike. In the name of the Regents of the University of Cali- 
fornia I do now confer upon you in recognition of many services 
to society the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws, thereby making 
you one of us, one of our household. Charles Richard Van Hise : 
clear headed man of science; publicist strong and courageous; 
straightforward builder of new paths in human education. 

The CHAIRMAN: Will Professor Gayley bring a candidate? 

Professor gayley : Mr. President, I present to you for 
recognition by the University of California the patriotic and 
preeminently wise, eloquent orator of the day, Harry Burns 
Hutchins, formerly Professor of Law in Cornell University, Pro- 
fessor of Law and Dean of the Department of Law in the Uni- 
versity of Michigan, Member of the American Bar Association, 
and ex-Chairman of the Section on Legal Education, and for 
many years past and now President of the University of 
Michigan. 

President wheeler: Good friend, I knew about it before; 
others had discovered it, some of them — most of them today, but 
they now know it — a man in whom men can well trust. Harry 
Bums Hutchins, I gladly admit you to the degree of Doctor of 
Laws. Harry Burns Hutchins: man of sound common sense, 
everywhere trusted and beloved. Head and expression of that 
institution which for fifty years has more than any other 
expounded to us the needs and the opportunities of the state 
university here. 

President wheeler : And the second fifty years has already 
begun. 



PART SECOND 

CONFERENCE ON 
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 

FIRST SESSION 

Chmrman, Professor Henry Morse Stephens 
THE HISTORY OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN AREA 



The chairman : This conference is the first of a series to be 
held this week. It is unnecessary for me to make any long intro- 
duction because the matter of the history of the Pacific Ocean 
Area is detailed and dealt with in a series of meetings held two 
and one-half years ago in San Francisco in connection with the 
Panama Pacific International Exposition. We then had a series 
of papers dealing with the history of the Pacific Ocean Area, and 
I shall always remember the valiant aid the first speaker whom 
I am going to call on this afternoon, lent in the carrying out of 
that programme. This afternoon our discussion is to be led by 
an address by Professor Pay son J. Treat of Leland Stanford 
Junior University. No one did more for the Panama Pacific 
Historical Congress than he. No one living on the Pacific Coast 
has paid more serious attention to the problems presented through 
the history of the Pacific Ocean Area, and it is with particular 
pleasure that I now introduce Professor Treat, and ask him to 
be kind enough to give us his address. 



346 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 



THE FOUNDATIONS OF AMERICAN POLICY IN THE 

FAR EAST 

Payson Jackson Treat, A.M., Ph.D. 

Professor of History, Leland Stanford Junior University 

The aims and methods of American diplomacy have rarely 
been unworthy of the high ideals of American democracy. The 
diplomats may at times have been lacking in experience or in 
capacity ; they have rarely been wanting in worthy motives. In 
no part of the world, down to the present cataclysm, has Amer- 
ican diplomacy played a more commendable role or a more suc- 
cessful one than in the Far East. A generation ago this state- 
ment might have called for some defense; but time has demon- 
strated the fundamental wisdom of America's foreign policy, and 
it may safely be said that she has conquered with ideas where 
others have failed with the sword. 

For a hundred and thirty years the United States has had 
interests in the Far East ; first, the commerce of her adventurous 
merchants; then, the pious work of her missionary bodies; and, 
finally, territorial possessions off the coast of Asia. 

The American seamen and merchants who took part in the 
old China trade were stout democrats, who believed in the saving 
grace of business competition, who asked for nothing but fair play 
in the East, and sought no special advantages for their country 
or themselves. Imperialism was undreamed of by the Americans 
of those days. Interference in the domestic affairs of foreign 
nations seemed a negation of the principles of the American 
revolution. Respect for the law of the land, even for Chinese 
law, seemed to them a self-evident duty, and, after the first war 
between Britain and China, a governor at Canton testified that 
the American merchants had been ' ' respectfully observant of the 
laws." And because of their good conduct they won favor. 

The first treaty negotiated by the United States in the Far 
East was with the kingdom of Siam, in 1833. The second was 
with China, in 1844. Although the trade of the United States 



CONFEBENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 347 

at Canton stood second only to Great Britain, yet the Americans 
had not joined Britain in the so-called "Opium War." But 
every commercial concession which was granted to Great Britain 
was freely granted to us, and the crude extra-territorial provision 
in the British supplementary treaty was well defined by Caleb 
Cushing in the American document. In the sixteen years of 
friction between the first and second European wars, although 
at times the American representatives were sorely tried and 
believed that only through war could foreign rights be main- 
tained, yet the government at Washington counseled moderation ; 
and thus America again was spared participation in a war, by no 
means wholly justifiable, against China. 

Within this period came the opening of Japan to foreign 
intercourse after more than two centuries of seclusion. Because 
American interest in Japan was greater than that of any other 
power, America made the well considered attempt to convince the 
Japanese of the error of their seclusive policy in the days when 
steam was shortening the girdle of the globe. To Commodore 
Perry, for the wise and sympathetic manner in which he con- 
ducted the negotiations, and to a handful of forward-looking 
Japanese in the Shogun 's castle should be ascribed the credit for 
this epoch-making expedition. The gates were, however, but 
slightly opened, although British, Russians, and Dutch were 
granted privileges like our own. It was the American Consul 
General, Townsend Harris, who, unsupported by battleships, won 
from the Shogun a liberal treaty of commerce. This was a per- 
sonal triumph. Harris had convinced the Japanese, during a 
year's residence at Shimoda, of his unquestioned honesty and 
good will. When they realized that they could believe in him, 
then they followed his advice implicitly. And be it remembered 
to his credit he took no advantage of their ignorance, but framed 
a treaty which protected as well as might be the interests both of 
his own country and of Japan. For almost three years after the 
treaty went into effect Harris remained at his post trying to 
harmonize the conflicting views of his European colleagues and 
of the Japanese ministers. There is good reason to believe that 
if Harris had not stood alone at one of these crises, two of the 
European powers would have become involved in measures which 
might easily have led to war with Japan. 



348 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

If there is one word which runs as a golden thread through 
the dispatches between our representatives in the Far East and 
our State Department, it is the word ''moderation." Sometimes 
it is coupled with ' ' forbearance, ' ' and again with ' ' justice. ' ' But 
over against the advocates of strong measures and the * ' gun-boat 
policy" American diplomacy stood for moderation, forbearance, 
justice, and what we call today, "the self-determination of 
peoples," the right of Asiatic peoples to work out their destiny 
without foreign interference. 

In China, Anson Burlingame, at a time when American in- 
fluence was at its lowest ebb during our Civil War, succeeded 
in introducing a policy of cooperation among the foreign min- 
isters to take the place of individual force. He also became the 
first envoy of China to the western powers, and in the treaty 
negotiated by him in Washington, in 1868, appeared this sum- 
mary of American policy : ' ' The United States, always disclaim- 
ing and discouraging all practices of unnecessary dictation and 
intervention by one nation in the affairs or domestic administra- 
tion of another, do hereby freely disclaim and disavow any inten- 
tion or right to interfere in the domestic administration of China 
in regard to the construction of railroads, telegraphs, or other 
material improvements. ' ' If such a clause had been accepted by 
all the great powers, and honestly observed, how different would 
have been the recent history of the Far East ? How much more 
honorable the story of European diplomacy? How many lives 
offered up on Manchurian battlefields would have been syjared? 

In a few years Japan entered upon her long struggle for the 
revision of the commercial treaties. These compacts contained 
two features which were repugnant to the national consciousness 
of Japan: the extra-territorial privileges of foreigners and the 
low conventional tariff. The former was first written in a Russian 
treaty of 1855, while the latter was framed in 1866 and replaced 
the very fair tariff in the Townsend Harris treaty. In his treaty 
Harris had apparently provided for the revision of its terms 
after July 4, 1872. The wording of his text was followed in the 
treaties negotiated by other nations, but for historical reasons 
the British treaty substituted July 1st for July 4th. But when 
the Japanese sought the expected revision they found that the 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 349 

alterations depended upon the consent of both parties ; and that 
unless all the treaty powers were willing to agree to the proposed 
changes, Japan would be bound by the irksome provisions. In 
other words, Harris should have written what he really had in 
mind, that the treaties would expire in 1872, and then new 
negotiations would take place. 

The struggle of the Japanese for the revision of the treaties 
makes a long story and one that is not very pleasant reading in 
these days of high idealism. The depression is relieved only by 
a consideration of the record of the United States. When the 
powers refused any measure of revision and Japan realized that 
she would have to remodel her codes and courts before she could 
gain jurisdiction over the persons and property of foreigners, she 
then tried to secure tariff autonomy, believing, in her innocence, 
that the powers surely could have no objection to allowing her to 
control her own tariff. But in this respect she was soon un- 
deceived, for the United States was the only nation that would 
sign such a treaty. At every stage of the negotiations, which 
were carried on over a period of twenty years, the United States, 
acting on the principles of moderation and justice, sought to 
further the claims of Japan. But American influence was small 
in the world at large before 1898, and it was not until Great 
Britain finally yielded, in 1894, that revision could be effected. 

An interesting event in this period was the visit of General 
Grant to the Orient in 1879. In China and in Japan, in con- 
versation with statesmen and officials and with the Mikado him- 
self, he enunciated the American policy that she had no interests 
inconsistent with the complete independence and well-being of all 
Oriental nations. And he urged the two states to settle their 
differences and unite in strengthening themselves against 
European aggressions in Eastern Asia. Not only did he give 
pertinent advice in regard to the Loochoo Islands controversy 
between China and Japan, but he also urged them to unite in a 
joint political control of Korea, to quiet their own disputes in 
that country, and to close the door to unfriendly European inter- 
ference. Japan acted on this advice, and a treaty with China 
was drafted in 1880, but Li Hung Chang prevented its approval 
by the throne. And thus were sown the seeds of the Chino- 
Japanese War. 



350 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTFNAEY 

And, finally, General Grant gave this advice to the Mikado: 
"American statesmen have long since perceived the danger of 
European interference in the political affairs of North and South 
America. So guard against this danger. And, as a measure of 
self-protection, it has become the settled policy of the United 
States that no European power shall be permitted to enlarge its 
dominions or extend its influence by any interference in American 
affairs. It is likewise the policy of America in the Orient, I may 
say it is the law of our empire in the Pacific, that the integrity 
and independence of China and Japan should be preserved and 
maintained." This counsel was given twenty-one years before 
John Hay sent out his integrity of China notes. Unlike the 
Americas, Asia possessed no state then strong enough to enunciate 
a Far Eastern Monroe Doctrine. Later, Japan alone had to 
repel the Rusian advance into Manchuria and Korea ; and since 
the outbreak of the Great War she has let the world know that 
she would tolerate no further European aggresisons upon China. 

A striking manifestation of the high place American diplo- 
macy had won for itself came with the outbreak of the Chino- 
Japanese War in 1894, when both belligerents turned over the 
protection of their nationals in the enemy country to the United 
States. Never before, to my laiowledge, had such a tribute been 
paid to a nation's honesty and fairness. And it was the more 
marked because in the eyes of the world at large American 
influence was but little esteemed. 

It was the successful issue of the Spanish- American War 
which gave the United States the influence in world politics which 
her strength deserved. With the acquisition of territories in the 
Caribbean and the Pacific — Porto Rico, Hawaii, and the Philip- 
pines — the nation seemed to have emerged from her old self- 
centered provincialism to play a part upon the world stage. The 
growth of American influence in the Far East may be at once 
noted after the close of the war. A good understanding with 
Great Britain was developed in those days, and as Japan gained 
in strength she threw in her lot with the English-speaking 
peoples. 

Before 1898, therefore, American influence in the Far East 
was based upon men and ideas, rather than upon power. Amer- 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 331 

ican diplomats were, with rare exceptions, worthy exponents of 
American diplomacy. It is of interest to note the use which was 
made of men of missionary training in our diplomatic service, 
especially in China, where Dr. Peter Parker, a pioneer medical 
missionary, served as secretary of legation, charge d'affaires, and 
commissioner betwen 1844 and 1857, and Dr. S. Wells Williams 
acted as secretary between 1855 and 1877. And the part played 
by American advisers in shaping the diplomatic policies of east- 
ern countries should be remembered. From the early seventies 
until 1914, the adviser of the Japanese Foreign Office was always 
an American, E. Peshine Smith, Eli T. Sheppard, and Henry 
W. Denison held this post, the latter for thirty- four years; and 
if Durham H. Stevens had not been assassinated by Korean 
fanatics in San Francisco, he would no doubt have been Denison 's 
successor. If, throughout this long period, Japanese diplomacy 
has stood out in contrast with that of some of the western states, 
no little credit must be given to the Americans who carried the 
ideals of American diplomacy over to their alien posts. Another 
missionary, Dr. McCartee, was foreign adviser at the most im- 
portant Chinese legation, that of Tokyo, from 1877 to 1879 ; and 
at a later period, when China needed all the wise advice possible 
to extricate her from the abyss after her unhappy war with 
Japan, it was the late John W. Foster who accompanied Li Hung 
Chang on his mission to the peace conference at Shimonoseki. 

In this period another principle, based upon moderation and 
justice, was established. Unearned or undeserved indemnities 
were twice returned to eastern nations. In 1883, the total amount 
received from Japan as our share of the Shimonoseki indemnity 
was returned, and in 1885 the balance of the Canton indemnity 
was returned to China. This principle has not yet been generally 
recognized by other powers, although with the return of over 
ten million dollars of the Boxer indemnity in 1908 the United 
States again affirmed it. 

The principles of American diplomacy in the Far East had 
been formulated before 1898, but the prestige gained in the 
Spanish war increased the force of American influence. After 
nine months of indecision the United States, with the ratification 
of the Treaty of Paris, took possession of the Philippine Islands. 



352 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENABY 

This gave her a hostage to fortune in the Far East. The islands 
were demanded by the United States primarily because it was 
our duty to the inhabitants, whom the fortunes of war had 
thrown into our hands. I question the accuracy of those who 
would assert that political and commercial interests dominated 
the policy of President McKinley. One test I would apply is 
this: If the Philippine Islands had been a part of Spain, in- 
habited by Spaniards and loyal to the mother land, would the 
United States have taken them from her in 1898? Yet it must 
be remembered that, although our motives were high, the Islands 
were demanded as part of an indemnity which included Porto 
Rico and Guam. It was easy for a certain type of publicist to 
discount our pretensions, and to assert that America, which had 
carried her conquering eagles from the Mississippi River to the 
Pacific Ocean, had now swept on to the conquest of Asia. To us 
this sounded absurd ; to an Asiatic it sounded reasonable enough. 

It was the international rivalry in China after the Chino- 
Japanese war which gave American diplomacy a larger field in 
the Far East. In the exploitation of China from 1896 to 1899, 
the United States had taken no part, nor had she been able to 
exercise any influence upon the eager participants in what was 
considered to be the ' ' Break-up of China. ' ' But after the Span- 
ish war the voice of America was at least listened to, and her 
influence for good was felt. The so-called ''Open Door" notes, 
sent to the great powers by John Hay on September 6, 1899, 
were designed to secure their assent to the maintenance of the 
' ' Open Door ' ' for commerce in the leased territories and spheres 
of interest held by them in China. The principle was by no 
means new. Great Britain and the United States had long stood 
for open commerce, without discrimination. The importance of 
these notes lies in the public promise of five European powers, 
and Japan, that they would continue to respect this principle. It 
should be remembered that Italy and Japan had no leaseholds 
at this period. 

From that time on the United States has followed Far East- 
ern developments with hitherto unknown interest, and she has 
played a part of increasing importance. During the Boxer Up- 
rising in 1900 the United States cooperated with the powers in. 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL EEL AT IONS 353 

the relief expedition, and during the long months of diplomatic 
negotiations at Peking she stood out consistently for moderate 
measures of punishment and for a low indemnity. As Mr. Rock- 
hill reported at the time: "Throughout the negotiations our 
object was to use the influence of our Government in the interest 
of justice and moderation and in a spirit of equal friendship to 
the powers negotiating jointly with us and the Chinese nation." 

It was while the international relief expedition was assembling 
at Tientsin, and while the "West echoed with the cries for ven- 
geance upon China that the United States again moved to save 
that unhappy country. The "integrity of China" notes of 
July 3, 1900, sent out by John Hay, serve to round out the 
"Open Door" notes of the preceding September. They asserted 
the purpose of the United States to be the rescue of the legations, 
the protection of American life, property, and interests, and the 
suppression of the existing anarchy in North China. And they 
announced her policy to be that of seeking "a solution which 
may bring about permanent safety and peace to China, preserve 
Chinese territorial and administrative entity, protect all rights 
guaranteed to friendly powers by treaty and international law, 
and safeguard for the world the principle of equal and impartial 
trade with all parts of the Chinese Empire. ' ' 

When favorable replies to these notes had been received from 
the powers, the moral victory of the United States had been 
achieved. Any power that would then encroach upon Chinese 
territory or independence would break faith with all the others. 
This was a triumph of ideas ; it was based upon no treaty ; it was 
supported by no armed force. Its real strength lay in " a decent 
respect for the opinions of mankind." 

With the part played by the United States in the Far East 
since 1900 we are not concerned. The foundations of American 
policy were laid during the period of limited influence before 
1899. There were times in those days when American principles, 
worthy in themselves, received scant attention from the other 
powers. But after 1899 these same principles received a hearing. 
And the so-called "Hay Doctrine" was but a flowering, under 
favorable conditions, of the seed sown by Gushing and Perry, 
Harris and Burlingame, Bingham and Low. 



354 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

"Within the last few years a small group of journalists has 
repeatedly charged our government and state department with 
ignorance or cowardice, or both, in dealing with Far Eastern 
affairs. The charge is made that the ''Hay Doctrine" of the 
"Open Door" and the "Integrity of China" is as vital an Amer- 
ican policy as the Monroe Doctrine, and that it should be de- 
fended and maintained. Japan, they assert, has violated both 
parts of the ' ' Hay Doctrine, ' ' and some have demanded that the 
United States proceed to war with Japan before it is too late. 

If the premises of these gentlemen be correct, that the ' ' Hay 
Doctrine" has equal force with the Monroe Doctrine and that 
the Japanese have flouted the "Hay Doctrine," then the con- 
clusion which they reach seems irresistible. 

But, for myself, I have never been able to follow their line of 
reasoning. In the first place, there is really little comparison 
between the Monroe Doctrine and the "Hay Doctrine." The 
former is a doctrine which has received the approval not merely 
of the United States, but of the two Americas. And whereas in 
the days of weakness of the Latin American republics the United 
States was the only power able, if need be, to defend this con- 
tinental doctrine, yet today most, if not all of the twenty-one 
republics would unite in its defense. 

The "Hay Doctrine" was the formulation of a principle, 
recognized by all the world. But, at best, it represents officially 
only the views of the executive department of our government. 
The United States has signed no treaty guaranteeing the integrity 
of China and the principle of the "Open Door." It is very 
doubtful if any administration or any Senate would negotiate 
or ratify such a treaty, because of our national dislike for over- 
seas entanglements. 

On the other hand, all the powers which might have violated 
the principles laid down by Mr. Hay have signed solemn treaties 
to observe them. Japan, Russia, France, Germany, and England 
have, in different compacts, agreed among themselves to respect 
the territorial integrity of China and the ' ' Open Door. ' ' If any 
one of these powers violates these principles, the first nation to 
protest should be that whose treaty has been broken. In other 
words, all the interested powers have pledged themselves, in 
treaties, far more solemnly than in their exchange of notes with 
us. 



CONFEEENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL DELATIONS 355 

The real difficulty, I believe, lies in the loose way in which the 
* ' Hay Doctrine ' ' is sometimes treated. I look upon it as a logical 
development of the principles of American diplomacy already 
laid down in the Far East. It was the statement of a policy, 
based upon moderation and justice, designed to preserve the 
integrity of China and the equal participation of all the world 
in her commerce. The part of America lay in formulating and 
securing recognition of such a self-evident truth, but a truth 
which cut across the plans of certain powers. So long as 
America played fair, respected the principles which she had 
avowed and reaffirmed them whenever they seemed to be for- 
gotten, she fulfiled her full duty. And this affirmation has been 
made each time the principles seemed endangered; during the 
Russo-Japanese War in 1905, in the Root-Takahira notes of 1908, 
(when the conduct of Japan in South Manchuria was being 
scrutinized; and in these notes the use of "pacific means" is 
expressly stipulated) during the Chinese Revolution in 1911, and, 
finally, in 1917, in the Lansing-Ishii notes, "in order to silence 
mischievous reports that have from time to time been circulated. ' ' 
To do more, to wave the "big stick" whenever a charge was laid 
against a friendly power, would be unworthy of the dignity of 
a people who believed in the assured triumph of moderation and 
justice. 

At this dark hour of the Great War, when a ruthless military 
autocracy, intoxicated by fleeting successes, has ground under its 
iron heel five of the nations of Europe, it seems almost fatuous 
to speak of the ultimate triumph of moderation and justice. But 
I would be blind to the teachings of history if I did not affirm it. 
Truth is not forever on the scaffold, nor is wrong forever on the 
throne. Mankind has struggled on from dark days to bright 
ones, through the morass to firm ground and to high ground. 
Wrongs are righted, even though generations may intervene; 
and the eternal principle of justice abides long after man-made 
treaties are thrown to the winds. And just as I believe that the 
Allies will win in this Great War, and that the principles set 
forth by the chosen representative of the American people will 
be the determining factors in the final settlement, so I believe 
that in the days of reconstruction in the Far East the principles 
laid down by American diplomats in the past, which reflected so 



356 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

well the spirit of their democracy, will have an increasing in- 
fluence in moulding not only the international relations but the 
continental policy of all Asia. Nothing is settled until it is 
settled right, and the American policies of moderation and justice 
and self-determination are founded in righteousness itself. 

Discussion 

The chairman : I will ask Dr. Yen of the University Bureau 
of China to open the discussion of the subject so ably presented 
by Professor Treat. 

Doctor yen : I feel sure that we have all been highly inter- 
ested in listening to the very excellent paper read by Professor 
Treat. I think he has covered the ground and has not left any- 
thing for other people to say. The only thing I want to say is 
to endorse the views that have been expressed by Dr. Treat. I 
particularly agree with his view regarding the statement of fair 
play. It is the success of all diplomacy. It is through this 
diplomacy that America has won the heart of the Chinese people. 
Many people have tried to make territorial gain from China, but 
you have learned from the paper of Dr. Treat that America has 
never attempted that. That is really the success of America. 

Professor Treat mentions the time of the Boxer trouble when 
all the nations tried to collect indemnities from the Chinese 
government either in territorial gain or in money; America 
returned part of the indemnity to the Chinese government. 
Other people got territory in Hanchow, but America did not get 
any. 

America and China are now the two great republics in the 
Pacific. You have such a big country and you believe in demo- 
cracy, while we too have had a great struggle for democracy 
against autocracy. I think our relations should be strengthened 
through sympathy and understanding and that we should be able 
to get along very well indeed. 

I must apologize because I was notified by Professor Stephens 
just a few minutes ago, and have had no opportunity for pre- 
paring myself. I am sorry not to be able to do justice to Pro- 
fessor Treat's paper in this discussion. 



CONFEBENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL BEL AT IONS 357 



ADDRESS OF YAMATO ICHIHASHI, A.M., Ph.D. 

Assistant Professor of Japanese History and Government, 

Leland Stanford Junior University 

The CHAIRMAN: The next name on the list that I was in- 
structed to call upon here is a colleague of Professor Treat's, 
Professor Yamato Ichihashi, of Leland Stanford Junior Univer- 
sity. 

Professor ichihashi : Ladies and Grentleiuen : Professor Treat 
has eloquently stated just exactly what I wanted to say. As 
students of the Far East question we are grateful to Professor 
Treat for his elucidating account of how the foundations of Amer- 
ican diplomacy in the Far East were laid down, guided by the 
principles of justice, righteousness, and unselfishness. But unless 
those principles of American diplomacy are properly appreciated 
by the parties involved they remain "dead letters" from an 
international point of view. 

A brief story of Japan's leading men who have been guiding 
the foreign policy of that nation might add a little to the paper. 
But there is now no time for such a story. I merely wish to 
invite those of you who are interested in the subject to read the 
history of Japanese diplomacy, especially the part which relates 
to Japanese- American relationships. In the history are revealed 
blunders here and there, yet on the whole it is an adequate proof 
of Japan 's profound appreciation of the American application to 
the islanders of the principles of justice, righteousness, and un- 
selfishness. And it is this mutual appreciation of those principles 
which enabled this country and Japan to maintain their tradi- 
tional friendship for now more than a half century. 

Of late, however, some of the American newspapers began 
to attack Japan's foreign policy as a menace to mankind. They 
point to us and say that Japan has a wonderful capacity for 
swallowing; in no time she would swallow the vast Republic of 
China with its four hundred million inhabitants. Such talk is 
obviously foolish. But they persist. They have already done 
damage to the interests both of Japan and the United States. 



358 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

The governments concerned realize the wisdom of silencing "mis- 
chievous reports that have from time to time been circulated", 
and exchanged notes, now known as the Lansing-Ishii notes. 
These notes have settled once for all the nature of policies to be 
pursued in China. 

Since then a new question has arisen elsewhere in the Far 
East. And Japan once more becomes an object of suspicion. 
They say that the situation in Siberia will be taken advantage of 
by Japan in her scheme of dominating Russia in Asia ; that her 
presence in that region would constitute a peril worse than the 
German menace. But the world need not worry. 

I have been watching the development in Siberia, but so far 
as my information goes, Japan will not send expeditionary forces 
to Siberia except on two grounds. First: Japan must be con- 
vinced that a German menace actually threatens peace of the Far 
East. In such a case, Japan has no right to hesitate. As an ally 
of Great Britain, Japan has assumed the responsibility of main- 
taining peace and order in that part of the world. She should 
employ every available means at her command to clear the region 
of the German menace and to restore peace and order therein. 
Second : should Japan decide to send expeditionary forces wisdom 
dictates that she should do so with the consent and approval of 
America and the Allies. Acording to the opinions of our repre- 
sentative men, that now reach us day after day, I am convinced 
that Japan would do nothing contrary to the wish of the Entente 
Allies. Then it should be emphatically stated that Japanese in- 
tervention in Siberia will be for the benefit of Russia. Japan will 
have no self-interest, still less selfish interest in whatever she 
may do in Siberia. Such is a logical confirmation of the prin- 
ciple of Japanese diplomacy. 

Japan is in the war for principle and for nothing else. 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 359 



ADDRESS OF EOY MALCOLM, Ph.D. 

Professor of Political Science, University of Southern California 

The chairman : With reference to certain remarks of the last 
speaker I should like to bring before you one interesting historical 
peace analogy. There was a great war waged in the middle of 
the eighteenth century in Europe, and for a long time mankind 
did not know what the important result of that great war was ; 
it happened in Europe. That great war was known as the 
''Seven Years War," and we all know today that the great thing 
that happened in that war was the conquest of Canada, the creat- 
ing of an English-speaking North America. It may be that one 
hundred and fifty years from now the German menace may be 
over with the disappearance of Germany from the Pacific Ocean. 

We have heard from two speakers from the Leland Stanford 
Junior University. In southern California there is a university 
distinguished by the excellence of its historical work, and I pro- 
pose next to call upon Professor Roy Malcolm of the University 
of Southern California. 

Professor malcolm : Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen : 
Professor Treat has dealt admirably with the great question of 
American diplomacy and policy in the Par East. There is, how- 
ever, another side to the question which as yet has not been 
touched upon, and which to me personally is a most interesting 
question ; and that is, the rights and privileges of Japanese citi- 
zens and Chinese citizens in the United States. This question is a 
very important part of American diplomacy at the present time, 
and has been since the middle of the last century. 

I suppose very few Americans realize that there are growing 
up within our boundaries Japanese and Chinese American born 
who have all the rights and privileges which you and I as Amer- 
icans enjoy, and that creates rather an anomalous situation. 
According to the latest reports there are in California today some 
thirteen or fourteen thousand American born citizens of Japanese 
blood who have all the rights and privileges which the rest of 
us Americans enjoy, yet whose parents at the present time under 



360 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

our laws cannot become American citizens. That presents a very 
delicate and important problem. I am reminded of a story that 
a friend of mine tells concerning a Japanese friend of his who 
has several children American born. One day his little son came 
home from school and said, ' ' Papa, they say there is going to be 
a war between the United States and Japan. Papa, you are a 
Japanese, and I am an American citizen, I will have to fight 
you. ' ' That is indicative somewhat of the spirit we find among 
these thousands of Japanese boys and girls who are American 
citizens by birth, by the "law of the soil." 

I was present some time ago at an important meeting in the 
City of Los Angeles, where the Educational Commission from 
Japan was inspecting some of our city schools. The larger pro- 
portion of those who took part in the programme that evening 
were American-born boys and girls whose parents were Japanese, 
and on the programme was a little sketch depicting the life and 
customs of our pilgrim forefathers. Here was one little Japanese 
boy trying to represent the life of our forefather John Alden; 
a Japanese girl representing Priscilla, and another Japanese boy 
Miles Standish, and others American Indians. School teachers 
tell me that almost without exception the average American-born 
Japanese or Chinese boy is as bright as the American boy or girl, 
and yet they have parents who under our laws cannot become 
citizens at the present time. That is a more serious problem 
for us today than ever before. We have extended these privileges 
to the Germans, Slavs, Italians, English, Scotchmen, and Irish- 
men, and to nearly all races with the exception of the Mongolian. 
We did not observe until about 1882 that the yellow man was 
excluded from citizenship under our naturalization laws. At the 
present time if he can meet the formalities of our law the darkest 
man from the darkest part of Africa can become an American 
citizen, while the most refined and educated man from the Far 
East cannot become a citizen. Is that a fair proposition, and did 
our forefathers mean to exclude from the body politic these men 
with yellow skins? Thus far we have said, "Yes." There the 
question stands today. 

I am very glad Professor Treat took up that question of our 
relations in the Orient. But if we are to maintain friendly 
relations we must come to a just settlement of this question of 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 361 

citizenship. We must recognize the right of men of the yellow 
race to become American citizens if they can qualify under the 
law. It seems to me that Japanese citizens in California are 
making quite as good a record as many representatives of Euro- 
pean countries living amongst us. We are looking toward a new 
internationalism, and we say today, we are brothers in this great 
problem. 

We ought to lay all the cards on the table and meet these prob- 
lems open-mindedly and with an open hand. Our final solution 
must rest upon a basis of justice, not upon an appeal to force; 
for that is a thing which both Japan and the United States with 
the Allies are fighting to overcome. 



362 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 



THE PACIFIC OCEAN IN HISTORY 

Charles Edward Chapman, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D. 

Professor of Latin-American and California History, 
University of California 

The CHAIRMAN: Heretofore we have been hearing about the 
Asiatic side of the Pacific, but at the present time there is an 
American side which we have forgotten. I want to call upon one 
of our own college professors to address you, Professor Charles E. 
Chapman, Professor of Latin- American and California History, 
University of California. 

Professor chapman: Ladies and Gentlemen: We all know 
what the Pacific Ocean is, but I sometimes wonder if we know 
what history is. Even the historians themselves cannot agree on 
the meaning of the term. History is, at least, a means of finding 
out of what our own civilization consists. The events of the past 
are so incalculably numerous that a selection from them is in- 
evitable. We, therefore, aim to select what seem to bear on our 
civilization as it is and on the probabilities of the future. It 
follows that history varies from time to time, and from place to 
place, according to the peculiar circumstances of each age and 
country. 

Taking up the matter from the standpoint of the United 
States today, we still have need of Europe as the basis for our 
own civilization, and also because of the important relations which 
we have with European countries concerning lands outside of 
Europe. But the emphasis on European history can be over- 
drawn. I am inclined to believe that we give too much space 
relatively to Europe. Most decidedly we give too little space to 
the lands around the Pacific Ocean. We in this country ought to 
know more about those lands ; not as a basis for the understand- 
ing of our own civilization, for they do not provide such a guide, 
but because of the ever-increasing importance of our relations 
with them. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 363 

Other speakers have dealt with the Orient. We need to know 
the Orient, but I pass that by. I wish rather to call your atten- 
tion to the fact that there are still other lands around the Pacific, 
British Columbia, Alaska, New Zealand, Australia; and in par- 
ticular I wish to call your attention to the existence of a vast and 
wealthy area, the lands to the south of us in Hispanic America. 

To my mind there is nothing more vital in our national life 
than an understandiug of the problems which are arising in con- 
nection with this Hispanic world. I am a believer in the prin- 
ciple of continental solidarity ; if not politically, at least in many 
other ways. Our life is inextricably bound up with that of the 
southland : socially, politically, economically, and even intellectu- 
ally. We do not yet realize this, but if we wish to achieve the 
greatness that is possible for us we must take this into account. 

I have not time to explain more clearly what I mean, but let 
me give you an example of the extremely rich possibilities of 
Hispanic America. Some of you may have heard of the rich 
copper mines of the Rio Tinto in Spain, mines which have been 
worked continuously since 1000 B.C., and which are still extra- 
ordinarily productive. And yet those mines are as nothing com- 
pared to the wealth in copper which runs practically all the way 
from the United States of Columbia to Terra del Fuego, especi- 
ally in Chile, Bolivia, and Peru. Inevitably, lands with such 
wealth as this, lands which are habitable for the white man, are 
going to be a great factor in the civilized world some day. This 
is but a single illustration out of many I could give you. I 
should like to speak of other factors in the life of Hispanic 
America, but time does not allow. 

In conclusion, then, let me say we should consider that the 
claims of the Pacific world are entitled to a large share of our 
attention in historical study, and not least of all, indeed to me 
most of all, the claims of Hispanic America. 



364 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 



ADDRESS OF K. K. KAWAKAMI, MA. 

The CHAIRMAN: The last speaker's remarks lead inevitably 
upon my calling next on Mr. Kawakami of San Francisco. 

Mr. KAWAKAMI: It is rather a coincidence that I stand here 
because I did not know that I was on the programme until I 
came into this room. Therefore, I am going to tell you some of 
my experiences during my trip in China. I returned to this 
country from the Orient, most of my time while there having 
been spent in China. 

Professor Treat discussed the Oriental problem rather thor- 
oughly. The crux of the problem in the Orient is the policy of 
Japan or Japanese activities in China. Many of you think that 
Japanese are aggressive, that they are the Germans of the Orient, 
that they are a bad lot. As a matter of fact, they are not bad 
people ; the Japanese are not bad. They are just like yourselves, 
and you are not a bad people at all. I think the reason why the 
Japanese appear to be bad is simply this: Their country is too 
near. Their country is also too crowded; very crowded. The 
people of Japan have to go somewhere to earn a living. The 
country is too small ; so small that the production of the country 
is not enough even to feed its own people. They have to expand. 
They have to seek a place. When I was in Shantung, which was 
formerly a German country, I noticed that the Japanese were 
superseding many Chinese. Under the German regime they had 
built about five hundred miles of railroad. The number of Ger- 
mans employed on that railroad were just a handful, they did 
not exceed perhaps a hundred. The rest of the employees of the 
railroad were Chinese, I noticed. When the Japanese took the 
railroad from the Germans they superseded most of the Chinese. 
The Chinese workingmen were disturbed and in their place the 
Japanese came in, depriving the Chinese of their business. Now, 
that sounds pretty bad, but that is not because the Japanese are 
bad; it is simply because their country is so small, the country 
has to support such an immense population that they have to go 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 365 

out, and it is but natural that they would come in contact 
with the Chinese. When I was in Shantung I think there were 
perhaps something like three or four hundred Japanese employed 
on that railroad. Under the German regime the Chinese em- 
ployed on the railroad were more than six hundred. The Japan- 
ese activities in China are illustrated by this example. 

Let me tell you another story. In China you, of course, have 
to use a jinricksha, a pull cart. Well, according to the municipal 
regulation in Tien Tsin the fare or charge for the jinricksha is 
five cents for a very small distance, for a ride of one mile, say. 
Well, Americans and Europeans never pay less than ten cents. 
They may ride a mile or a half a mile, but they never pay five 
cents ; they always pay ten cents or perhaps more. You have to 
have some idea of Chinese coin ; for if you change that ten cents 
into copper coins you get twelve. So if you want to pay five 
cents, you change that ten cents into twelve copper coins, and 
you use only five copper coins. Now, the Japanese know that. 
They go and take the ten cents to the Exchange in China and get 
twelve, a dozen copper coins, and if the Japanese ride only one 
half a mile or a mile they give the coolie only five copper coins ; 
whereas, the Europeans and foreigners give ten cents. You see 
that makes a difference of seven copper coins between what the 
foreigners pay and the fare paid by the Japanese. Of course 
this arouses feeling against the Japanese. So they say the 
Japanese are very mean and stingy. That is not the point. You 
must remember this : the Americans and Europeans who come to 
China are not ihe working men; they are not the so-called lower 
class of people. They are merchants, some of them captains of 
industry, and some of them millionaires, representing big ship- 
ping companies or banks. The Europeans and Americans in 
China are just a handful, just a small number. They do not 
think anything of paying ten or twenty cents to the coolies. On 
the other hand, the Japanese who go to China are a class of 
people who cannot afford to pay ten cents when five cents will do. 
Therefore, the inside facts have never been considered, never 
presented to the foreign leaders discussing the Oriental question. 
So many people think the Japanese are stingy and mean, but that 
is not the true statement of the facts. 



366 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

The distance between Japan and China is so short. For in- 
stance, suppose a Japanese wanted to go to China from Nagasaki. 
It is so easy to go there. It is even easier than to go to Tokyo. 
Many people of the lower class go to China, to Shanghai. The 
trouble between Japan and China, I think, lies in the fact that 
the two countries are so near, that the poorer people of Japan 
can easily go to China. On the other hand, you people in 
America are so far from China that only the millionaires and 
professors and bankers, only those classes of people can go to 
China. 

I think Professor Treat has discussed the Japanese activities 
in China in a way, but I want to call you attention to this fact. 
The Hay Doctrine for the ' ' Open Door ' ' in China is good enough, 
but Japanese feel that America, when the crucial moment comes, 
when the principle is to be tested, America backs down. It has 
backed down. Think of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904r-05. 
Japan fought that war for the principle, for the American prin- 
ciple of the Open Door. I think it is a matter of historical record 
that before that war, Japan, seeing that Eussia had been steadily 
encroaching upon China's integrity, asked certain European 
powers and the United States Government for assistance for the 
specific purpose of checkmating Russia's advance in Manchuria. 
What did the American Government do? Nothing. America 
was all right for declaring the principles of the "Open Door." 
But for Japan, it is not the principle that she needs, it is the 
real fact that the principle shall be defended and protected, and 
when that final moment came, when the men had to fight Russia, 
America did not help Japan. True, she advanced some money; 
but that is not the thing that can secure that principle. It is not 
money. It is after all blood and fire, and Japan had to furnish 
blood, and a great deal of it. 

Japan created a good deal of sensation in this country in 1915 
in regard to the twenty-one demands. You forget in the demands 
that Japan asked China to declare that thereafter no territory 
on the coast of China should be ceded to any country, Japan 
included. That is another application of the principle of the 
"Open Door," and it is one of the best things accomplished in 
China. I think that Japan and the United States agree on the 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 367 

principle of the "Open Door;" but the point is the American 
people are too optimistic as to the future of China, while Japan, 
being so near, and I presume understanding the conditions better, 
entertains a decidedly pessimistic view as to the future conditions 
of China. Perhaps the United States may think that if we only 
declare a principle of the "Open Door" China will be main- 
tained. China is so disorganized that there is no hope for China's 
regeneration. I think Japan wants to maintain a strong position 
in China, and very rightly, on account of the relations of the two 
nations. 



368 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 



ADDRESS OF OSWALD GARRISON VILLARD 

President New York Evening Post, Editor of The Nation 

" The chairman : It is quite time that we should hear from this 
eastern country to which Professor Chapman has alluded. "We 
have here for this Semicentennial celebration of ours a repre- 
sentative of the East whose very name is dear to us. Professor 
Hilgard, as you all know, was one of the pioneers of California. 
I have no doubt that many of you have heard of the services that 
Professor Hilgard has rendered. I am going to call on the last 
speaker now, a relative of Professor Hilgard, Mr. Oswald Gar- 
rison Villard, who has come to us all the way from the East to 
take part in this Semicentenary celebration. Mr. Villard has 
been a careful student and exponent not only of relations here 
on this coast but those across the Pacific, and has boldly studied 
and stated his opinion on the issues and concerns of the countries 
on both sides of the Atlantic coast, and he will conclude this 
discussion. 

Me. villard : Ladies and Gentlemen : It is a pleasure for me to 
lay my homage at the feet of Professor Treat, and to say to him 
that just to have heard that paper alone repays me for the long 
trip which I have just made. 

We in the East are so accustomed to hearing that you on the 
Pacific Coast can only discuss these questions of the Pacific Ocean 
with blood and thunder, that it is the greatest possible satisfac- 
tion to me to have heard so enlightened a paper, and one marked 
by such a fine idealistic note. That is all the more gratifying 
because in this moment of world war when we have put this 
tremendous issue to the test of the sword, we are ourselves in 
danger of forgetting the value of moral principles and ideas. 

We cannot, it seems to me, have too many illustrations of the 
value of moral ideals, and what they have accomplished for the 
United States in international relations in the past. 

I wish Professor Treat had had time to bring his story down 
to the present time. He came so near covering the whole subject 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 369 

in his discussion of the foundations of our policy, that I could 
not help wishing he would go a matter of only seventeen years 
farther and give the rest of the story ; because there is one chapter 
in that discussion which merits just as high approval as the other 
points upon which he touched. I refer to the action of President 
Wilson in the matter of the Six-Power Loan, which I believe will 
stand out, when the historians write of his administration and 
review this period, as one of the great far-sighted acts of Presi- 
dent "Wilson's administration. 

But as I heard Professor Treat discussing that whole subject 
the thought would come to me that in a sense the policy was 
accidental. That it was by good fortune rather than by intelli- 
gence or deliberate study of our Pacific Coast problems of the 
past that we have carried through the policy as well as we have. 
And then I want to call your attention to the fact that some of 
the ideals which President Wilson has announced as being the 
ones for which we are contending in this war, and shall demand 
in the peace settlement, are really the ideas translated in the 
European field that we have been standing for in the East. This, 
however, we feel : that we ought to strive more than ever in this 
country for open diplomacy. Some of the gentlemen who have 
spoken have touched upon the curiously persistent feeling of 
suspicion of Japan. A great deal of that, I believe, could be 
removed if we could feel sure that the open policy for which our 
friends the Russian revolutionists have stood, and for which 
President Wilson stands could be introduced and we could feel 
assured that we had the cards before us. 

Just before I left the East there fell into my hands a copy 
of a secret treaty between Japan and Russia, given out by the 
Bolsheviki, constituting an alliance between Japan and Russia 
in the event of either of those nations fighting another nation 
which might have or seek to have a dominating influence in the 
affairs of China. It is just the occasional appearance of docu- 
ments like that on both sides which creates that feeling of doubt 
and distrust among our American people, who seek earnestly to 
get at the truth. Are we sure that we know all that is going on ? 
We were not taken into the confidence of the Grovernment in the 
matter of the Lansing-Ishii agreement. We editors were notified 



370 VNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

we must not even speculate as to what those two distinguished 
men were talking about. We were not allowed to say in our 
editorials what they were talking about, or what we, the expon- 
ents of American public opinion, thought they ought to be talk- 
ing about. It was all good enough until the final appearance in 
cold print. So I believe that in the future if we are to carry on 
this historical policy of ours on the Pacific Ocean successfully, 
we should feel that open diplomacy, the open covenants of peace 
which President "Wilson urges, are absolutely essential. "We 
should do more than that ; we should insist on that. If there is 
one thing that stands out in this whole world-tragedy it is the 
breaking down of the old fashioned diplomacy. The Russians 
have shown us the tremendous power which comes even in deal- 
ing with a people temporarily so mad as the Germans by stating 
in public what they are talking about. Even though the Bol- 
sheviki did not accomplish what they desired, I believe that 
tremendous, yes, thrilling results have come from this policy. 

My friends, as I see it, in these problems we have got to inject 
a new element. Not only by open diplomacy, but by putting in 
representatives of the peoples concerned; and that is why some 
of us in the East have been pleading for a permanent Pacific 
Congress to meet perhaps in Hawaii, and to be composed not 
merely of professional diplomats but of representatives of science, 
industry, and various professions and working people, who shall 
not only be representative of their own country, but shall repre- 
sent all the countries involved; the Latin Americans, the Domin- 
ion of Canada, Japan, China, America, and the others. 

"We are hoping for just such conferences as this in order to 
arouse public opinion to the gravity of its importance, as well as 
to the magnificent role performed in the past by the United 
States. We want to arouse that public opinion if only to offset 
a certain part of the press — why is it when the yellow journalists 
look upon yellow, they invariably see red? We must have a 
check upon them; we must enlighten the public's opinion, so 
that we shall not only hold these irresponsible journalists in check, 
but be able also to conclude our relations with these Pacific coun- 
tries on the basis of the best and highest spirit of our common 
and our noble humanity. 



CONFERENCE ON IN TEEN AT ION AL RELATIONS 371 



CONFEEENCE ON INTEENATIONAL EELATIONS 

SECOND SESSION 

Chairman, Professor Carl Copping Plehn, Ph.D., LL.D. 
Professor of Finance, University of California 

ASPECTS OF THE LABOR PROBLEM 

The chaibman: We have met together today to discuss cer- 
tain aspects of the labor problem, aspects related primarily to 
certain wider international relationships. We have learned in 
these recent days that finance is but a shadow of substance, and 
like other shadows it has the power of increasing without any 
increase in the substance which casts it. We have learned that 
the distinction between nominal wages and real wages is a very 
real thing. We have learned to look to the substance behind in 
that respect. We are bound to learn from the awakening that 
is going on that some of our ideas as to the foreigner are, perhaps, 
mere shadows ; and the closer we draw together, the more likely 
we are to find that all workers are after all, men. 

I have the pleasure of introducing to you as the first speaker 
of the Conference, Mr. Walter Mac Arthur, now the U. S. Ship- 
ping Commissioner, and formerly one of the most respected labor 
leaders of the Pacific Coast. 



372 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 



INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS OF THE LABOR QUESTION 

Mb. Walter MacArthur 

U. S. Shipping Commissioner, San Francisco 

Mb. chairman, ladies and gentlemen -. At this moment the 
relations between the United States and Japan in respect to the 
labor question are better than at any time in the past. The 
present state of affairs may be described as one of inquiry, for- 
bearance, and give-and-take in the expression of opinion. Thus 
the situation is favorable to the final adjustment of the whole 
question arising from the difference of viewpoint in each country. 

For this fortunate turn of events the Japanese are entitled to 
chief credit. Recently the Japanese Government has sent to this 
country deputations authorized to exchange views with the Amer- 
ican people, especially with the representatives of labor. In 
addition to these official exchanges we have received as visitors 
several Japanese who, although acting in an unofficial capacity, 
were none the less representatives of the people of their country. 
Among these may be numbered a representative of the largest 
financial interests and a representative of the recently organized 
labor movement of Japan. 

The meeting of these representative Japanese with men of like 
standing in the United States has been characterized by the 
greatest frendliness and an earnest effort to understand each 
other. The demonstrations of good-will that have been extended 
by our public authorities to the official representatives of Japan 
have been equalled by the fellowship, sympathy, and mutual 
interest manifested in the meetings of Japanese and American 
workingmen. 

This, it will be noted, is but a repetition of the common ex- 
perience that as we learn to know each other better, misunder- 
standing, prejudice and fear give way to confidence and reciprocal 
good-will. The more we see and know of the Japanese the less 
they look like "Japs"! 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 373 

It is unnecessary to point out that this change in the attitude 
of the two nations, as represented in these gatherings, does not 
imply a surrender of any ground, nor perhaps any real change of 
opinion regarding the wisdom or otherwise of the steps heretofore 
taken to regulate international relations. 

The utmost that can be claimed for these exchanges of opinion 
is that they have served to clear away some misunderstanding, 
to place the whole matter of international relations upon a surer 
footing, and thus to make possible a settlement of the question 
upon stable and permanent grounds. 

After all has been said and done, both parties may be of the 
same opinion still in respect to the fundamental issues involved, 
but at least that opinion will rest upon the truth as to the reasons 
of the respective attitudes, rather than, as in the past, upon 
prejudice and misinformation. 

This is clearly a great advantage. History teaches that much 
of the trouble in international relations has grown out of mis- 
understanding by one people of the character and motives of 
another. Anything and everything that tends to remove mis- 
understanding, to bring the people of different nations face to 
face in an atmosphere of friendly and dispassionate discussion 
is so much gained in the effort to establish relations peaceful, 
equitable, and permanent in character. 

The principal, if not the sole object of gatherings such as the 
present should be not to propose or discuss changes in the exist- 
ing state of affairs, but to promote the tendency toward a coming 
together of the two peoples, in order that they may themselves 
propose and discuss such changes as may in their judgment seem 
desirable. 

I do not mean to say that we should not venture to touch upon 
the subject at all, that we should take the position that there is 
"nothing to arbitrate," nothing to discuss. Quite the contrary, 
I regard such an attitude as the bane of the whole matter. In 
the past we have been too much disposed to take the position that 
there is nothing to discuss, thereby acknowledging that our case 
was not quite so strong as we would have it appear. By all 
means let us discuss the question from every angle and from the 
very bottom to the very top. But in doing so let us avoid the 



374 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIF OMNIA SEMICENTENARY 

mistake of cock-sureness. Those who believe in exclusion may be 
in error. On the other hand, those who believe in the abolition 
of all such restrictions are just as likely to be themselves in 
error. The real truth of the matter may lie half-way between. 

For our present purposes it would be well to follow the plan 
adopted at the informal gatherings to which I have referred. 
"We should accept the situation as we find it, and endeavor by 
frank and honest study to justify, or at least explain it, to our 
own satisfaction if not to that of our friends on the other side. 

No doubt in the course of such procedure we shall note many 
details that have given rise to misunderstanding, details which, 
although constituting no essential part of the subject itself, have 
been so played upon and magnified as to become in the popular 
view the main issue. No doubt we should find that political 
expediency has played a large part and that the methods of 
the press have not infrequently distorted the real issue. It will 
be found, too, that these observations are equally applicable to 
politicians and newspapers on both sides of the question and on 
both sides of the water. 

We ought to be warned, and our "friends" ought to be 
warned, that the time for the exploitation of this particular ques- 
tion has passed, and that the time for study, calm, dispassionate 
study, for the frank and honest discussion of the question and 
for the acknowledgment of errors, if such there be, has arrived ; 
and that by those methods, and only by those methods, can we 
hope to prevail with the people of California and the country at 
large. By that method we may hope to reach a final solution of 
this question, a solution that will commend itself as well to our 
fellowmen on the other side of the Pacific as to ourselves. 

It must be admitted, of course, that the so-called "labor 
agitators" have made mistakes, to the extent at least that they 
have sometimes followed the politicians and the newspapers, for 
want of better guides. At bottom the labor agitation on the 
subject has been sound. It has been, and still is, the honest 
expression of an irrepressible instinct, the instinct of self-preser- 
vation. If at times our philosophy has been merely the precept 
of our practice, if we have not always been able to voice the true 
reason for the instinct that has moved us, that fact should not 
be held to militate against the soundness of the instinct itself. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 375 

Stripped of false doctrine, freed from those incidentals which, 
like so many parasites, have fastened themselves to the body of 
the problem, I believe it will be found that the principle of 
restriction, or regulation, is based upon grounds of public neces- 
sity, apparent alike to ourselves and to our neighbors. 

Eeverting to the advantages of direct personal contact between 
ourselves and the representatives of the Japanese people, it is 
unfortunate that circumstances have operated to interfere with 
the plans for a continuance of these negotiations. This gather- 
ing can render no better service to the cause of good under- 
standing between the people of the United States and Japan 
than by encouraging these meetings. By such means we may 
hope to reach an amicable understanding and agreement upon 
the whole subject by the people of both countries. 



376 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 



ADDRESS OF K. K. KAWAKAMI, M.A. 

The chairman : The next speaker whom I have the pleasure 
of introducing is Mr. K, K. Kawakami, known to some of you at 
least, as the author of "Asia at the Door." 

Mr. KAWAKAMI : Mr. Chairman and Students : It seems to me 
that the Japanese workingmen on the Pacific Coast or in America 
are in a particularly difficult position. To use an expression 
which is familiar to you, they are "between the devil and the 
deep sea." The contention of organized labor, the trade unions 
on the Pacific Coast, in demanding the restriction or exclusion 
of Japanese workingmen, has been that the Japanese work for 
smaller wages, work for less than the American workingman. On 
the other hand, the employers, the capitalists, say that the 
Japanese have to be excluded because they do not work so cheaply 
as some of the other workingmen, Chinese and Mexicans. The 
other day I was speaking with a San Francisco man whose in- 
terest is with the trusts. We were discussing the Japanese ques- 
tion, so-called. I said to him, "The fundamental question, the 
Japanese question, today is the question of naturalization. You 
must extend citizenship to Japanese in order to solve the prob- 
lem, because the Japanese government does not intend, does not 
wish to send any workingmen to this country. To do justice to 
the small number of Japanese who are already here America must 
extend citizenship to the Japanese." Said my friend, the 
American, "That is all right, that is all right, we will extend 
naturalization to the Japanese, but I do not, or we do not want 
Japanese workingmen any more." "Why?" I asked. "Be- 
cause, ' ' said he, ' ' American capital must have some kind of labor 
which is much inferior to Japanese labor." Do you get the 
point? Well, he meant America must have workingmen whose 
wages are much less than what Japanese workingmen demand. 
The Japanese perhaps are satisfied with small wages when they 
come to this country at first, but they are pretty quick to learn 
the tricks of the trade unions of the American people. They 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 377 

demand higher wages and higher wages until their wage scale is 
just as high as that demanded by organized labor of this country. 
That is what I meant by saying that the Japanese workingmen 
are "between the devil and the deep sea." On the one hand, 
organized labor says that Japanese work for small wages, and, 
therefore, we must exclude them. On the other hand, the 
Japanese wants more wages than the Chinese or Mexican, so we 
must exclude them. 

I think Mr. MacArthur, our speaker this morning, referred 
to the fundamental solution of all such problems, and he said 
that the concentration of land in the hands of a small party of 
land owners is the fundamental trouble. If you distribute the 
land more equally there would be no trouble in having Japanese 
farmers in this country. I would like to elaborate that point a 
little more. That principle ought to be applied not only to indi- 
vidual land ownership, but to the distribution of territories 
among the different nations. I call your attention to this fact 
because of a great deal of discussion which has been aroused by 
the Japanese proposition to send troops to Siberia. In Siberia 
you have a very apt illustration of how inequitable is the dis- 
tribution of land today. It is just as inequitable as the distribu- 
tion of land among private or individual owners. In Japan 
today we have such a small percentage of land which is capable 
of cultivation, perhaps sixteen per cent of the whole island. The 
food material which is produced in Japan is not enough to feed 
its own population, and we are told not to send any emigrants 
to the countries which are owned by the so-called white nations. 
We are told to solve the problem of land shortage and surplus 
population within our own resources. Beside this sorrowful 
state of conditions in Japan, you have a wonderful condition in 
Siberia, which is not populated to any considerable extent by 
the so-called white people. Siberia, although much of it is in the 
cold, frigid zone, is a wonderfully rich country, and the country 
has been taken — ^much of it has been taken from China. Perhaps 
for many centuries to come Russia will not be able to use most 
of the land in Siberia. I am talking of this in connection with 
the Japanese proposal to send troops to Siberia simply because 
that proposal brings forcibly to mind what kind of a country 



378 VNIVEE8ITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

Siberia is, and what an excellent example it affords of inequitable 
distribution of land. On the one hand, you have Japan which is 
so congested that she is not able to produce enough to feed her 
own population, and, on the other hand, you have Siberia, which 
for many years to come will not be used by the people who own 
it. Does it seem right to you that any single nation should be 
permitted to own more territory than it could possibly use? I 
think the equitable distribution of land among nations is just as 
vital as the question referred to by Mr. MacArthur. 

Coming back to the labor problem. Organized labor has been 
saying that the Japanese work for smaller wages and do not know 
the methods of organized labor. If that is the contention I should 
suggest that organized labor open its doors to the Japanese, and 
the Japanese will be willing to join the labor unions. But, of 
course, it is a pretty hard thing to be consistent and logical 
always. 

Mr. MacArthur referred also to the alien land question in 
California. I think that question has a very interesting labor 
aspect. At the time the alien land law was proposed I think that 
organized labor of California supported it. The labor unions 
supported it because they thought that perhaps if they passed 
this law many of the Japanese in California would go back to 
Japan. But they were mistaken; the Japanese did not go back 
to Japan in spite of the alien land law. They are going to stay 
here; and in supporting the alien land law organized labor has 
been working against its own interests. For if you drive the 
Japanese from the farms, from the countryside, where they 
properly belong, those Japanese are bound to come in competition 
with the American laborers who are in the cities. The Japanese 
who are deprived of the privilege of cultivating the soil would 
have to come into the city and seek employment in the city ; and 
there they will come into competition with organized labor. That 
is why I say that organized labor made a great blunder in sup- 
porting the enactment of the alien land law. 

A thorough-going solution of any problem is not easy. It is 
almost impossible. I think no problem has ever been completely 
solved. I think a problem remains always a problem. All we 
can do is to attack each particular difficulty as it arises, and 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 379 

reduce the problem ; solve only a part of the problem and make 
it less difficult. That is all we can do, and with that end in view 
I think Mr. MacArthur's proposition that Japan and America 
should appoint a number of committees or commissioners to 
discuss frequently the problems in a friendly spirit is a very 
good suggestion. That I think should be adopted, and if we meet, 
as Mr. MacArthur says, the problems which appear to be quite 
formidable and very difficult may be not so difficult after all. As 
Mr. MacArthur says, "the more we Americans see the Japanese, 
the less the Japanese look like Japs." That has a good deal of 
philosophy in it. If Japanese and Americans sit at the same 
table and discuss the problems in a conciliatory and friendly 
spirit there is bound to arise a spirit of mutual understanding, 
and the so-called Japanese problem will not be found so difficult, 
but easy to solve. I thank you. 



380 VNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA 8EMICENTENABY 



ADDRESS OF MR. J. W. MULLEN 

Editor of The Labor Clarion 

The CHAIRMAN: The next speaker is Mr. J. "W. Mullen, 
editor of The Labor Clarion. 

Mr. MULLEN : Mr. Chairman : I came over this morning with- 
out any very definite idea as to what was to occur here. I came 
also without any papers to discuss any particular subject. The 
question, however, that has engaged the attention of the two 
previous speakers this morning is one to which I have devoted 
some little study. It is one concerning which I have formed 
some very definite ideas, and arrived at conclusions that may 
not be altogether in harmony with the ideas and opinions held 
by most trade unionists, particularly on the Pacific Coast. 

The agitation of the labor movement for the Japanese ex- 
clusion, and so forth, has been based entirely upon the economic 
idea. The trade unionist of the Pacific Coast has entertained 
the idea, and not without sufficient foundation, that a large influx 
of Japanese workers into the United States would necessarily 
be hurtful to the workingmen of this country because of the 
fact that the Japanese would work for a lower rate than the 
American workman. Now that conditon of affairs is not peculiar 
to the Japanese alone. There have been waves of immigration 
to the United States during the past one hundred years; and 
with almost every wave there has been aroused a certain amount 
of prejudice and agitation against the immigrants because of 
the fact that most newcomers arriving in this country are ordi- 
narily satisfied with lower wages than the American or European 
workers who have been here for some length of time. The worker 
when he first arrives finds it almost necessary to work for a 
lower wage in order to get employment at all, and as a conse- 
quence accepts that low wage, and in accepting it necessarily 
hurts the American workmen. Any workman that works for 
low wages, when other workmen demand high wages, must, of 
necessity, be harmful to the high-wage workman. There has, how- 



CONFEBENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 381 

ever, been pointed out to you in connection with this labor a 
racial question injected into it. The labor people, however, did 
not inject the racial question of Japanese immigration. That 
was brought in from other sources, and the organized workers 
saw in that possibility of the situation an opportunity to bring 
about the exclusion of Japanese, and very readily took hold of 
it; but they are not in any way responsible for it, and I can 
truthfully say, so far as I am personally concerned, that I have 
no racial prejudices ; that so long as a man, no matter where he 
comes from, no matter what his race may be, or his nationality, 
if he plays the role of a man, is a man for "a' that and a' that," 
in my opinion. So that we are not now nor have we at any 
time contended that the Japanese ought to be kept out of the 
United States upon racial grounds. The Japanese find this con- 
dition prevailing when he comes here; he believes in order to 
get employment, in order to get work at all, that it is absolutely 
necessary for him to work at a rate below that of the American 
workman. It is true that after he has gained a foothold in 
certain industries he then demands higher pay. The longer he 
stays here the better he becomes acquainted with American stand- 
ards of life, American conditions, the aims and objects of Amer- 
ican workmen, and the more he endeavors to meet those conditions. 
It has been said that when organized labor supported the 
alien land law in California it blundered. I am going to agree 
with that proposition. I think if organized labor had considered 
only its own interests, at least its direct interest in that con- 
nection, it would not have supported the alien land bill when 
it was up before the Legislature. But sometimes organized labor, 
like other divisions of society, acts, to some extent, upon expe- 
diency. There were labor questions before that session of the 
Legislature that the organized workers wanted to get through. 
It will not be disputed by any one I think in California that 
the agricultural regions of the State wield considerable influence 
in Sacramento during the sessions of the Legislature, and I pre- 
sume that the legislative representatives in Sacramento at that 
time, representing organized labor, felt that if they supported 
the alien land law they could call upon those who were favor- 
able to that law to support other laws when they asked them. 
I believe that the rank and file of the labor movement did not 



382 UNIVEBSIT¥ OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENAEY 

at that time give the alien land law sufficient consideration; 
that is, in regard to the manner in which it might affect them. 

Labor, of course, is organized in cities. There is very little 
organization in the country, and that law will, doubtless, have 
the influence of driving Japanese workers who might have gone 
into the country back into the city into competition with the 
workers. But, at any rate, during the past two or three years 
there has been a considerable change in the sentiment and feeling 
of the workers in this section of the country to the Japanese. 
That has been brought about very largely by the conferences and 
informal discussions held between the organized workers of Cali- 
fornia and representatives of the Japanese workingman as well 
as representatives of other interests in Japan. 

Plans have been presented for a solution of the Japanese 
problem upon several occasions. There is one plan being agi- 
tated throughout the United States at the present time that I 
feel offers a solution of the problem. A year and a half ago, 
after having studied the question for some little time, I became 
convinced that it offered an opportunity of solving the problem, 
and I introduced resolutions in the San Francisco Labor Council 
asking that council to endorse the plan. After considerable dis- 
cussion, however, the Labor Council turned the proposition down 
and refused to endorse it; so that the plan has not, up to the 
present time, received the endorsemenet of the labor movement. 
Personally I entertain the hope that some time, after more oppor- 
tunity has been given for the representatives of organized labor 
and for the rank and file of the labor movement to study the 
problem that I have proposed to the Labor Council, it may per- 
haps find greater favor ; and I assure you that while the organ- 
ized labor movement of California does not desire under present 
conditions an influx of Asiatics into the United States, and par- 
ticularly into this section of the country, yet we feel we are in a 
position to absorb immigration from the Orient without hurtful 
results to the workers here. There is a growing disposition to 
treat those of the Japanese who are here at the present time in a 
brotherly fashion. 

There are labor organizations right in San Francisco that 
have taken Japanese into membership. There is over in the 
Union Iron Works at the present time a Japanese blacksmith 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 383 

who is one of the most highly skilled blacksmiths in the Union 
Iron "Works ; he is a member of the Blacksmiths ' Union in San 
Francisco. 

It may be that later on more of the organizations, particu- 
larly among the skilled crafts, will be open to the Japanese. 
However, that is a matter of development. Influences and feel- 
ings that have been built up over a long course of years cannot 
be changed in a month or two, or in a year or two ; that condition 
of affairs must come about gradually; the change cannot be 
accomplished in a day. In some of the organizations along the 
lines in which the Japanese are engaged to a considerable extent, 
there is still entertained prejudice against them. There are some 
industries that maintain organizations for the purpose of op- 
posing the Japanese that are engaged in it. And it is true that 
in those lines, some of them, this opposition springs absolutely 
from the fact that the Japanese do work cheaper than the Ameri- 
can workmen; and the Japanese are, in those particular indus- 
tries, really forced to work for a lesser wage than the American 
because of racial prejudice that has been stirred up ; and in 
order to sustain themselves at that thing, they have to work 
cheaper. Just how that difficulty can be overcome I am not 
prepared to say. But this can be depended upon, until that 
condition has been overcome, and until some solution of that 
particular problem has been found, there is going to be oppo- 
sition from the wage workers to the Japanese in those particular 
lines. 

The whole question, however, it seems to me, is closer to a 
solution today than it ever has been before. The more I have 
talked this problem over with representatives of the Japanese 
the more I become convinced that ultimately we are going to 
find a solution that will be satisfactory to both the Japanese 
and to the Americans. And I believe that there is some substan- 
tial foundation for such a hope. 



384 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 



ADDRESS OF MR. J. KASAI 

The chairman : I will now call upon our next speaker, Mr. 
J. Kasai, a writer and a Japanese leader. 

Mr. KASAI: Mr. Chairman, Ladies, and Gentlemen: After 
having listened to such discussions I feel that I have little to 
contribute to this morning's conference; but while sitting here 
a few things have occurred to me which I might say. 

For many years I have been a student in medical institutions 
and interested in American affairs. America, ever since the 
time of Thomas Jefferson, has grown toward the Pacific Ocean, 
and today you have become a Pacific power, with your Hawaiian 
Islands and with your Philippines. On the other hand, there 
is an empire across the Pacific which is destined to be and which 
is thfe leader of the Far East world. That nation, the only 
modern nation of the Orient, is Japan. America and Japan are 
placed geographically face to face. What are we going to do 
about it ? Are we going to have eternal quarrels, or shall we be 
friends? Because Japan must remain America's friend, I am 
interested to know what you are, what your nation is, what you 
are going to do. 

In the last sixteen years there have been many things that 
have come between the two nations. First the immigration 
question and then came our Chinese question. You said that 
Japan was going to swallow China. That question has already 
been lucidly discussed in yesterday's conference by Professor 
Treat, who also told you how America's policy in the Far East 
has been inspired by a spirit of candor and benevolence toward 
those in the Orient. Fortunately this Chinese question has been 
solved by the Lansing-Ishii treaty, and we are now going forth 
fighting as comrades in the war. 

This question which we are this morning discussing — ^the 
labor problem and the immigration question — so far as the im- 
migration question is concerned, it was settled ten years ago, it 
seems to me. After the San Francisco fire and the school ques- 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL BELATIONS 385 

tion, Japan yielded to you in 1907 in making a gentleman's 
agreement. Japan said if our laborers are not welcome in Cali- 
fornia and the United States, we are not going to send you any, 
and ever since then, my friends, Japan has not sent anybody to 
your shores. Japan has proved herself a government and a 
nation that is capable of keeping a treaty agreement. 

If you remember, in that speech which Mr. Elihu Root made 
in New York City last September when the city of New York 
welcomed back Mr. Ishii, Mr. Root, who was Secretary of State 
during those troublesome days of the San Francisco question, 
said: ''Gentlemen, as an official of the American Government, 
I can testify to you the friendliness and the spirit of good will 
manifested by the Japanese diplomats and Japanese statesmen 
in those troublesome days." I am very glad to hear such words 
of assurance coming from as great a statesman as the United 
States has ever produced. 

My friends, ever since the year 1907 there have been no im- 
migrants coming to the United States, that is, laborers. Those 
Japanese who are able to come to America are the parents of 
the Japanese residents who are here, their wives, and children 
under sixteen years of age. During the last ten years those 
Japanese who came over here averaged three to four thousand 
a year, while those returning to Japan have averaged perhaps 
five thousand ; thus showing the decrease of Japanese population 
in the United States, excepting in the ease of Japanese born in 
California and elsewhere. That shows, my friends, that the 
question is already solved. Japan is willing and wishes to keep 
its gentlemen's agreement. 

But there is this question which has been proposed by Mr. 
Kawakami that what Japan wishes is equitable treatment; the 
same treatment which the United States has afforded to all other 
aliens who come to your shores. You have treated Mexicans, 
you have treated Hindoos, you have treated Austrians, you have 
treated Turks, and you have treated the Irish far more gener- 
ously than you have treated the Japanese. You have allowed all 
these peoples the right of citizenship ; but men like Noguchi, who 
has given so much to the medical world, and Takamine, men 
who are living in this country, giving their services to the United 
States, they cannot become citizens at the present moment, be- 



386 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY 

cause you do not allow it. I admire your spirit of liberty and 
freedom, your kind attitude toward Japan in the fifty years 
past, but I cannot understand why America still assumes such 
an attitude towards the Japanese nation. However, I have faith 
in the American people. Reading the pages of American history, 
I know and I feel sure that America in the very near future will 
change her attitude toward Japan. 

And then another question that is coming up I would like 
to speak to you about, and that is the Japanese of California. 
The Japanese in California you have heard much about; for 
instance, we have in the Sacramento Valley our Japanese section, 
and in the vicinity of Fresno our Japanese colony. As you 
know, Fresno is such a hot country many Japanese die there. 
Before the Japanese went there it was a sandy land, and so warm 
in summer that no white man would have gone there before the 
Japanese pioneers and other men went there and worked hard 
to make the land more habitable. One of the Japanese professors 
of the Imperial University who came to the United States and 
went to Fresno was amazed to find the number of graveyards of 
the Japanese, the ratio of the deaths in comparison with the 
Japanese living there was so great; yet those men who went 
there and fought against these difficulties have made that land 
become a land flowing with milk and honey. 

Take the Sacramento Valley. There is a man who through- 
out the United States is known as the Potato King. While I 
was in the East many would say: "Now, look here, California 
is having this Japanese question. Sure enough, because you 
have a man there who has been cornering every potato in the 
California market." I came here and found out whether this 
man is making a success, who is a millionaire or billionaire. I 
understand this gentleman has been working there for fifty years. 
Many years he may have made much money, but floods have 
washed away his potato patches and he has lost everything. 
During these last two years he has been doing very well and 
has made money, but yet the vast lands in the Sacramento River 
Valley are today controlled by your landlords, or by your mil- 
lionaires, who came to be after the improvements were made. 
And those Japanese who tilled the soil very hard did not get very 
much money out of the soil. 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 387 

During the last year, 1917, the Japanese contributed to the 
agricultural wealth of the State of California an amount esti- 
mated to be forty-five million dollars; and these Japanese are 
working hard in order to make their own living, and at the 
present time to make some contribution to the wealth of the 
Golden State. So this alien land law which you have heard about 
this morning has done a great deal of damage ; that is, because 
the Japanese cannot lease land for more than three years. Be- 
cause the Japanese cannot own lands in California the land 
owners take advantage of the situation, and the Japanese who 
are tilling the soil cannot make any permanent plans; they can- 
not make their own homes there ; they do not know what will 
become of them at the end of three years; they may have to 
move out ; therefore they do not want to make their own homes 
when they do not know their future plans. Meantime, if the 
Japanese till the soil and make it more fertile, the next year the 
land owner will raise the rent, and the rent will go high, high, 
high, until perhaps the American farmer next to the Japanese 
cannot pay so high ; neither can the Japanese pay such high rent 
and at the same time make a living; therefore, they will be 
driven away from the soil, and they may have to go into the 
labor market and compete with your laborers. 

It is, therefore, urgent, my friends, that this alien land law 
should be changed. Not to the interests of the Japanese alone, 
but to the interest of your own State and land owners. The 
Japanese feel that they can only stay on that particular land 
three years. They will naturally do their best to get the best 
out of the soil. Perhaps they will use very little fertilizer be- 
cause it is expensive. That would be, it seems to me, against the 
interest of your State. 

Then I should like to mention another thing which I have 
forgotten in mentioning the Japanese immigration problem. One 
of the most disastrous things, it seems to me, of the gentlemen's 
agreement was the exclusion of many Japanese youths who came 
here for education. Japanese schools in Japan are so very 
crowded and expenses in Japan are so great that those young 
men would like to come to America where they can find here 
the chance of an education ; but under the gentlemen 's agreement 
the young men, however ambitious, scholarly, and studious, are 



388 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

not granted passports by the Japanese government. Therefore, 
they are entirely excluded ; but when we think of the past, when 
a great many Japanese students were educated in American 
schools, worked their way through American colleges, and went 
home to Japan and held some position of influence in the govern- 
ment; those men are some of the men who are in the rank of 
Japanese financiers today. We find several of them advocating 
Japanese and American friendship ; they are the ones who know 
most sometimes ; they are the ones who remember the American 
friendship during their college days in America; but no more 
can they come. They are the best ambassadors of peace America 
could ever send to Japan. 

If the return of your Boxer indemnity to China in order to 
educate Chinese students in American colleges has been consid- 
ered by your men as the greatest triumph of American diplomacy 
in the Orient, why are you losing such an opportunity in forcing 
such an agreement upon Japan ? Japan has made an agreement 
with the United States, and the Japanese government will keep 
the agreement at any cost. I have found that many an American 
educator through the country from east to west says, if you are 
going to send your students to American colleges we should be 
very glad to take care of them. We can find them places in our 
colleges, but the Japanese government will not let them come 
here because of this understanding. 

In these things, my friends, — I am just telling you a few of 
them — Japan during the last ten j^ears has been consistent in 
advocating a friendly relation with the United States. Our 
financiers, our scholars, our students and statesmen have done 
everything possible to make her friendly relations lasting. We 
have made every concession in our dealings with the United 
States; and it is up to you to give us some assurance of your 
friendship, and I know from my long residence in the United 
States through the east and the west, I know that the bulk of the 
American people are friendly to Japan. It is because we have 
no citizenship that the Japanese have been made a political ball 
in this country. We have been kicked by some political parties. 
As Mr. MacArthur and Mr. Mullen, and all the leaders of labor 
movements in California and in the United States have been 
telling us, the laborers have come to understand the Japanese 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 389 

people, and they are ready to shake hands with them; and so 
with the bulk of American people. Therefore, if we are let alone 
by these jingo politicians and yellow newspapers, which have 
been constantly exploiting the Japanese question, America and 
Japan will take care of themselves. I know that a lasting peace 
will grow from the bosom of your heart, and Japan will be glad 
to cooperate with America in the Far East, Japanese financiers 
are willing to cooperate with American financiers in the Far 
Bast. Japan will be glad to fight with you, and our people will 
be glad to render our humble services for the cause of humanity. 



390 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENAEY 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 

THIED SESSION 

Chairman, Professor John C. Merriam, B.S., Ph.D. 
Professor of Palaeontology and Historical Geology, University of 

California 

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN SCIENCE 

William Wallace Campbell, B,S., Sc.D,, LL.D. 
Director of the Lick Observatory of the University of California 

The CHAIRMAN: Within the past year the political views of 
the American people have undergone great changes. We have 
come to recognize for the first time that no people may separate 
itself from the world, that we as a nation have our responsibilities 
to all other peoples wherever they may be. We have also come 
to recognize the fact that every item of knowledge from every 
field of science is important for our use in this particular crisis ; 
we understand now, as never before, the value of coordinated 
science and the necessity of relating the results of science to every 
department of government work. 

At this time of world crisis in international affairs it seems 
particularly^ fitting to consider the relationship of science to gov- 
ernment in the international sense. We have, therefore, invited 
Dr. Campbell to discuss this subject before us. Dr. Campbell is 
peculiarly fitted by his personality and by his wide knowledge of 
science, obtained through astronomic investigations, to present 
the subject. Dr. Campbell needs no introduction. We are all 
glad to have him with us. 

Director william w. campbell: Mr. Chairman, Members of 
the University of California, and all its Friends : I appreciate 
highly the honor conferred upon me as a representative of the 
University of California by the invitation to speak upon so 
important a subject on this occasion. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 391 

It is important that the speaker and his audience have an 
understanding as to the domain embraced in their subject. I 
desire especially to guard against a too narrow use of the word 
science. When a scientist* is spoken of, most people, including 
most university professors and students, have the chemist, the 
biologist, the astronomer, or the up-to-date farmer in mind. The 
chances are strong that they will leave out the historian or the 
student of the classic languages and literatures ; and that is some- 
times a mistake. The philologist who traces the development of 
the Latin language from its beginnings up to the days of its 
Ciceronian purity is as much a scientist a^ anybody is. It has 
been said that James Hadley, the Hellenist, author of the cele- 
brated Greek grammar, had no superior as a scientist in the Yale 
college of his day and generation. If a professor of history en- 
deavors to trace the effects of the continuous working of climatic, 
economic, ethnic, religious, and other forces upon the development 
of nations and civilizations, he is a real scientist ; but a colleague 
who contents himself with telling his students about the immedi- 
ate effects of this battle and of that war upon the boundary lines 
of the nations involved is not a scientist, and he ought not to be 
a professor of history. A so-called astronomer who merely tells 
his students how large and how far away other men have found 
the sun, the moon, and the stars to be, is not a scientist, and he 
ought not to be a professor of astronomy. You will find that 
this interpretation of science is in strict harmony with the dic- 
tionary definition of the word. The narrower practice prevailing 
in the every-day life of the world, and in the universities, has 
grown up chiefly as a matter of convenience. This practice may 
not change; perhaps a change is undesirable, but we should not 
lose sight of the fact that all departments of systematized Imowl- 
edge have the same honorable position in the domain of science. 
As items of local and ephemeral interest, we recall that last year 's 
research lecture related to an important factor in the history of 
the southwestern part of the United States, and this year's lecture 
relates to Spanish literature. 

We may say that a scientist is one who studies his subject 
scientifically ; that is, with due and impartial regard to the known 



* Some prefer the term ' ' man of science ; " in my opinion, an awkward 
and unsatisfactory expression; and it fails to include women of science. 



392 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

facts, and always with reference to causes and effects. Whatever 
his field of endeavor may be, he always has with him the absolute 
and unbreakable relationship of cause and effect. This relation- 
ship exists as truly in the economic and social life of the world as 
in the universe of nature. The familiar operations of nature or 
of life do not attract the attention of many people, but those 
operations are every one of them proceeding according to law, 
knoAvn or unknown. When something very unusual happens it 
attracts wide attention ; but the unusual is not more and not less 
the result of a cause than are the routine events of life. The 
student who really comprehends this fundamental fact is well 
on the way to success as a scientist. The nation whose people 
in their daily life are guided by this principle, and by respect 
for the rights of others, is a forward-looking and successful 
group of the human race. 

The forces which have interested mankind range from those 
cosmic forces which operate on a scale so stupendous that we 
can see no possibility of controlling them, down through those 
which we can control to a limited extent, and on to those which 
are absolutely subject to human control. We are not able to 
limit or to increase the output of the sun's heat, and we cannot 
guide the movements of the stars and the planets in their courses. 
We do not know how to stay the wind and the rain, but we can 
apply these elements in a limited degree to our purposes, and we 
can do much to protect ourselves from their injurious effects. 
The forces which govern the daily life of the individual, the com- 
munity, and the nation, and govern the relations of individuals, 
communities, and nations to each other are, with rare exceptions, 
either under human control or such control is a hopeful aspect of 
the near future. These latter forces are the means to certain 
logical ends ; and whether or not man and his legislation in trying 
to control them have been successful or unsuccessful, we cannot 
question that they also operate unerringly according to law. 
Whether they shall be applied to promote the desirable or the 
undesirable in civilization is for man to decide. The automobile 
may be used to hasten the robber to a place of concealment and 
immunity, or to bring the physician on an errand of mercy. High 
explosives will deal destruction from a 42-centimeter shell, or cut 
a canal through the Culebra Ridge at Panama. The armed forces 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 393 

of a nation may wage a war of conquest on a weak neighboring 
country, or may set up a new standard of international morality 
by establishing self-government in Cuba, for example, from the 
highest of humanitarian motives. 

We must hold as true the thesis that our universe, our earth, 
and every part of the earth's surface have developed during 
long ages to their present state under the operation of definite 
laws. The Sacramento River system and every detail of its 
valley and the enclosing mountains have been evolved slowly, 
in response to the existing conditions. There is a reason for the 
sharp curve in the river here, for the level plain there, for the 
isolated peak in the distance, and so on throughout the complete 
list of details. The observed structures are the resultants of all 
the forces acting upon them up to date. The drainage system 
adapted itself to the rainfalls and the melting snows of the 
centuries. Until seventy years ago the conditions in the Sacra- 
mento Valley were substantially natural and primeval. Then 
came men of knowledge and strong will who imposed new forces 
and created new conditions. What happened? Hydraulic min- 
ing filled the bed of the river and the beds of its tributaries with 
gravel; the trees on great areas of mountain side were cut down 
and burned down ; the snows melted more rapidly and the rain- 
waters descended to the creeks more quickly than was their 
wont. The creeks and rivers which had developed under the old 
conditions and were now reduced in capacity by debris from 
the mines were unequal to the sudden strain, and the valleys, 
great and small, were flooded. The dwellers of the plain were 
the innocent victims. There was war of a sort between the 
mountaineers, to whom hydrualic mining meant personal gain, 
and the plainsmen to whom it spelled personal loss. Fortunately 
a higher power, the organized State, stepped in to govern these 
new forces on the basis of equity and justice. But suppose this 
higher power had not existed, or, diplomacy having failed, that 
the settlement had been left to physical force. How slight the 
chances that justice would have ensued in the Sacramento Val- 
ley and even then at what a fearful cost! An unscientific pro- 
ceeding, we all agree. 

Let me illustrate identically the same principles by an ex- 
treme case. Two nations live side by side. One of them becomes 



394 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

suddenly interested in securing supplies of raw materials, on 
the one hand, and market for its finished products, on the other. 
It begins a struggle to obtain colonies; it makes paternalism the 
guiding principle within its own boundary lines, and physical 
force the arbiter ovitside of its borders. According to the rela- 
tions of cause and effect, what will develop? Trouble between 
the nations. A superior power to adjust the difficulty does not 
exist, and destructive war, paying no attention to the equities, 
is the sequel. A superlatively unscientific and wasteful proceed- 
ing. Such disorders develop from the application of man-made 
or man-modified forces to the life of nations, in accordance with 
the infallible principles of science; and international science, by 
whatsoever name it may be called, must find a suitable control. 
It requires unusual wisdom to look ahead and determine that 
one course of action today will be more potent for benevolent 
internationalism in the centuries to come than another course 
of action. But I believe we can agree that the greatest event 
in the internationalism of the past was Columbus's voyage of 
discovery. It is interesting to note, in passing, that his plans 
were based upon all available knowledge, and were carried out 
in a truly scientific manner. The idea of a round earth, it is 
true, goes back into ancient history, at least as far as many 
scientifically-inclined Greeks, and the northeastern shores of 
America had no doubt been visited by adventuresome Norsemen 
before Columbus's day. But neither the Greek ideas nor the 
Norse experience had found lodgment in the world's great store 
of knowledge. When Magellan a few years later circumnavi- 
gated the earth ; when in the same generation Copernicus estab- 
lished beyond peradventure that the earth is a ball which rotates 
on its axis, producing day and night, and revolves around 
the sun, explaining the seasons; and when Galileo's telescope 
showed that another planet, Jupiter, is also a ball, with moons 
revolving around it as our moon revolves about the earth; then 
the foundations of the internationalism of the earth were laid 
for all time; then, for the first time, could the people at large 
see their surroundings both on the earth and in cosmical space 
from the true point of view. Following that epoch in human 
knowledge international relationships were to be conducted 
under the conditions which really exist, and not under false 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 395 

imaginings of these conditions. There were to be settlements 
on all continents and islands, commerce would develop between 
far nations, intellectual communications would eventually take 
place between all peoples. 

From the snail-like and dangerous voyages in the sailing 
vessels of the Columbian epoch, we have progressed to a five-day 
journey in luxury and safety between Europe and America, and 
to practically instant communication by cable and wireless. We 
may in fairness say that the oceans are no longer a barrier 
between the nations; the swift steamers of today go whither- 
soever the will of the captain Hsteth; they wait not for the 
builders of highways and railroads. The prospects for direct 
speech betwen the continents by wireless telephony are most 
excellent for the immediate future. As to further progress in 
the next half century it were folly for the weak and restricted 
imagination of the present day to speculate. 

In the Copernican period, four centuries ago, established 
civilizations were more nearly on a parity than they are today. 
Mohammedanism, Christianity, Confucianism had each its relative 
advantages and disadvantages. Somebody may ask to know the 
advantages of Mohammedanism. The question is easily answered. 
The Mohammedans practice total abstinence as to alcoholic 
drink; there are no saloons in Mohammedan countries. The 
Moors in southern Spain were at that date not inferior to the 
Spaniards of Castile and Leon. Granada, the last stronghold of 
the Moors, fell in the fateful year 1492. Following the further 
persecution of the Moors, in the name of religion, during more 
than a century, these industrious artisans and agriculturists 
were expelled to Africa; and there are learned historians who 
say that Spain never recovered from that act of folly. 

It happened, following Columbus and Copernicus, that a 
man was born, now and then, who desired to know the cause of 
things and what the truth really is. Progress was made by those 
intellectual pioneers under difficulties of which we have no 
conception. In the twentieth century we who would study any 
subject whatsoever are encouraged and, in essentially all cases 
thought to be worthy, assisted financially and otherwise. Two, 
three, and four centuries ago he who would interpret nature 



396 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

must proceed in the face of strong opposition and at his peril. 
Even in the land of Lnther, so recently as the year 1755, the 
great Immanuel Kant, apparently to make sure of his per- 
sonal safety, felt obliged to mix the proper proportions of 
theology and science in his epoch-making book on the evolution 
of the stars. However, that is not our subject, and it is not 
pursued further; we mention it in partial explanation of the 
slow growth of science between the years 1500 and 1800. A 
further and perhaps stronger deterrent lay in the poor media 
of intellectual communication between the nations. The super- 
latively valuable nebular hypothesis of Laplace, published in 
Paris in the year 1796, makes no reference, by footnote or other- 
wise, to the work of Kant on approximately the same subject, 
published in Germany forty-one years earlier. Laplace's hy- 
pothesis makes a strong point of the supposed facts that the 
satellites in the solar system revolve about their planets from 
west to east and in planes nearly coincident with the principal 
plane of the solar system ; and one looks in vain for a reference 
to Herschel's discovery, made and published in England six or 
eight years earlier, that the two then-known satellites of Uranus 
revolve about that planet from east to west in a plane making 
an angle of 82 degrees with the principal plane of the solar 
system. International political conditions in the latter half of 
the eighteenth century can scarcely be charged with this appar- 
ent isolation of important knowledge in Germany, England, 
and France, respectively, though it is certain that international 
exchanges of intelligence, now taking place almost daily in 
important scientific matters, were poorly organized in the period 
concerned. The accelerated pace of scientific progress in the 
last half century is in no small measure due to improvements in 
means for the exchange of ideas thought to be valuable. 

In striking contrast with conditions in the days of the 
pioneers in science, it is now quite difficult to find a subject 
which is not being studied scientifically somewhere by somebody. 
The scientific spirit has been of slow growth, but it is now with 
us, profoundly influencing the daily life of individuals and 
peoples. It is this one fact which accounts for the phenomenal 
progress of the nations in the present generation. 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 397 

I think no other fact of history, no other force in sociology 
possesses a better series of illustrations. The scientific spirit is 
all but unknown to the Turks and the Mohammedans in general, 
the Hindus, the Egyptians, the Chinese, and many other peoples 
and nations. Amongst all these peoples, comprising fully three- 
fifths of the human race, can any one of us today recall the 
names of three men who have contributed directly and appre- 
ciably to the advancement of science in the past three centuries ? 
The very limited introduction of scientific methods into their 
countries is the work of alien governors and influences. The 
unscientific nations are threatened with absorption by their 
more scientific neighbors, not so much because they do not invent 
or perfect the most powerful cannon, the sturdiest dreadnaught, 
the speediest aeroplane or the subtlest submarine, as because the 
scientific peoples in other nations forge ahead of them in the 
arts of peace, in modes of thought, in the affairs of daily life. 
The unscientific peoples are without influence in the world, not 
because they are unwarlike — the Turks and essentially all 
Mahommedans are warlike enough to suit the most exacting — 
but because they are lacking in the everyday efficiency which 
accompanies the scientific spirit. 

Why are these people strangers to science ? Climate has had 
something to do with the unfortunate fact, but less, certainly, 
than would be expected by one who has not studied the subject. 
It is true that all aboriginal peoples in the tropics are pro- 
foundly unscientific, but so are most aboriginal peoples in the 
temperate and frigid zones. The Turks in the north temperate 
zone of Asia, the natives in the far-south ends of Africa and 
South America and in Australia, the Eskimos of the Arctic 
Circle, and the Indian of North America are no more scientific 
than the natives of Ceylon, Sumatra, and Abyssinia; and I 
should feel unsafe in saying that they are as scientific as were 
the Aztecs of tropical Mexico, the Incas of Peru, the ancient 
Javanese and the pre-Columbian peoples of Yucatan and Central 
America. To avoid misunderstanding, let me repeat, I am 
speaking of the scientific spirit that makes for progress in itself, 
and not of the state of civilization as forced by outside influ- 
ences. Climate may be favorable or unfavorable to progress, 



398 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAB¥ 

but there are other factors perhaps fully as potent. The nar- 
cotics of superstition and the tyranny of unfortunate religions 
are usually in evidence with all backward nations and peoples. 
Nearly all such peoples are fatalists. Fatalism is well named; 
it is fatal indeed. If the future will bring only what has been 
foreordained, why struggle for better things; why look up? 
Be satisfied with your lot. Settle down and be comfortable! 
Such a state of mind is the very antithesis of the scientific spirit ; 
its result is predictable; it is intellectual stagnation. There are 
nations and peoples held back by what may fairly be called their 
state religions. If you travel to the many corners of the con- 
tinents you cannot avoid passing through countries in which 
each village has a temple many times as high and long and wide 
as the schoolhouse — if fortunately there is a schoolhouse at all. 
In comparison with the temple the dwellings of the people, 
most of them mere hovels, are utterly negligible. The schools 
in such countries, and the colleges if there be any colleges, are 
generally a farce from our point of view. In the long run a 
monopoly of religion, like all self-governing monopolies, is fre- 
quently no better than it is compelled to be. It may be said that 
I am here treading on thin ice and should be careful. My point 
of view is that if one finds thin ice which won't dissolve under 
the infiuence of beneficent surroundings it is one's duty to tread 
on it. I do not know of any subject which more vitally concerns 
internationalism in science than do the the deterrent and fatal- 
istic religions. Some of the greatest scientific books of the 
future will certainly relate to the influence of religions upon 
civilizations. They will be written by wise men who respect 
idealism in personal religion, who see the beneficent effects of 
this idealism in the past, and who recognize the absolute need 
of this idealism both now and in the future. It is not my pur- 
pose to reflect upon nor to suggest interference with personal 
religion or with the right of every individual to select his own, 
in limits of reason; I am in full sympathy with the cultivation 
of that spirit within every man which makes for righteousness. 
The present condition of our sad earth is convincing evidence 
that science alone does not suffice; yet science, pure science, has 
had nothing to do with the unhappy state in which the world 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 399 

now finds itself. In the eyes of the non-Christian nations there 
never has been so severe an indictment of Christianity as the 
present war affords. From their point of view it is the so-called 
Christian nations which engage in the struggle. The truth is, 
the war has come not as a product of Christianity in the warring 
nations, but in spite of it. It has come chiefly because the spirit 
of the golden rule of Christ has been a stranger to international 
relations. 

To return to the important fact: religions have indeed pro- 
foundly influenced civilizations; sometimes for better, again for 
worse. Shall we speak publicly only of the good effect? Must 
we keep silent about the bad effects? It has long seemed to me 
that here, in this one field, there is special need of frankness on 
the part of historians, crying need of the pure truth-seeking of 
scientific inquiry, to the end that human experience, experience 
costly beyond the powers of imagination to evaluate, may have 
opportunity to guide in the present and in the future. This 
viewpoint is especially desirable for us on this western front 
of our nation, for we have the responsibility of facing many 
nations and many religions on the rim of the Pacific. Are those 
religions fatalistic and repressive of progress amongst their 
peoples ? If so, we shall have certain simple commercial relations 
with those peoples, but of intellectual product we may expect 
little to come out of them in many years. There the scientific 
spirit does not exist, and progress will be slow. Let me illus- 
trate my meaning by a reference to life in India, a country not 
literally, but in effect, on the border of the Pacific. It is a 
country overburdened with fatalistic religions and inconceivably 
absurd prejudices. It was once my lot to camp during seven 
weeks in a famine district of India. It was the second year of 
famine, and the people were suffering; yet I could not give a 
slice of bread and butter to an emaciated low-caste woman, nor 
a machine-filled can of California peaches to a high-cast woman, 
as our foods were unclean, from their religious point of view; 
to touch foods prepared by others would defile them, body and 
soul, and endanger their good prospects in the world to come. 
Is it useless to hope for the introduction of the scientific spirit 
among such peoples? No, it is not; but progress with such 



400 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

countries will not come from a frontal attack; a flank attack is 
the only practicable one. The beginnings of progress in India 
are already in evidence chiefly under the influences of industry 
and commerce; under the influences of the applied sciences 
rather than the fundamental. The railroads are doing more 
to break down the caste system than all the schools and colleges 
of India combined. Wlien railways first came, men of different 
castes refused to get into the same compartment. Now they make 
no objections to filling a compartment to capacity. Before the 
British came, and when the transportation system was primitive, 
a famine in one region meant dying like flies in the summer, 
though food in another region of India was plentiful. Under 
the auspices of the beneficent colonial government, work is now 
provided in times of famine, by building public improvements, 
and the money thus earned brings food to the suffering, by 
railways and ships. Even an Indian fatalist can see that there 
is much good in that kind of science. 

The attempts in India to fight plague, cholera, typhoid fever, 
smallpox, and other pestilences by sanitation, inoculation, vac- 
cination, and by segregation of the patients, have had a hard 
time in the face of opposition from both priests and laymen, 
but some progress has been made; perhaps even more progress 
than with the devotees of certain of the little religions, the 
" religionettes, " of our own country. If these and other oppon- 
ents of vaccination and animal experimentation had had their 
way in the so-called advanced nations in the past thirty-five 
years our mediciue and hygiene would not today be very far m 
advance of the East Indian standards. Millions of precious 
lives, now saved, would have been, and would now be the annual 
tribute of smallpox, diphtheria, typhoid fever, and other 
scourges. 

Let us turn from Indian conditions to the other extreme. 
Japan is a country whose religion seems not to lie athwart the 
plan of progress. Japan's rise in political influence has been 
startlingly rapid, but it has come as the logical result of her 
startlingly rapid progress in educational matters. There has 
never been anything to compare with it in other nations. The 
Japanese Government has practiced the deliberate policy of 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 401 

sending her brightest men into the leading countries of the 
world, to learn the best methods in government, in industry and 
commerce, in education of all degrees, Japanese research in 
many of the sciences, though not extensive, because of financial 
limitations, has been and is of a very high order. 

In other islands and countries with which the Pacific con- 
nects us we find peoples no more scientific than the Hindu, and 
other peoples as advanced in science as ourselves. The greater 
number of countries represent an intermediate state of advance- 
ment. Many of their governments, following a well defined and 
commendable longing for better things, have established colleges, 
or national universities, and have in several cases employed a 
certain proportion of foreign professors in their faculties. 
Barring the English-speaking and Japanese universities, the 
results have generally been disappointing, not because the 
quality of the instruction has been inferior or the professors 
lacking in ability and enthusiasm, but because the intellectual 
atmosphere in these countries is not propitious. The non- 
existence of a well-to-do and ambitious middle class is the chief 
element of weakness. In many of these institutions of learning 
the students have done well in foreign languages and in history 
of a sort, and extremely well in law and oratory, but in the 
exact sciences their work has been poor. They have contributed 
seldom and little to physics, chemistry, mathematics, and other 
subjects in which the student must be definite and accurate. 
The genuine scientific spirit is lacking, and memorizing and 
argumentation will not take its place. 

I have made much of the scientific spirit. Of what does it 
consist, and what does it signify? It means the conviction that 
the affairs of this world are subject to the forces and processes 
which have developed the world. It consists in the effort to 
apply those forces and processes, so far as we may control them, 
to the problems of our daily life. It means an appreciation of 
the fact that if we sin against the fundamentals, either we our- 
selves or our innocent dependents must sooner or later pay. It 
means the belief, and vigorously acting upon the belief, that we 
can do very much to improve the conditions around us, and 
that the power of the human mind upon matter is enormous 



402 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

and almost limitless. The application of unscientific methods 
to the problems of daily life is analogous to the case of the dis- 
honest witness who tells a crooked story in court : he is liable to 
get into trouble, without notice, for he is out of harmony with 
the truth existing around him. If the methods governing his 
life are scientific he is as the honest witness in court: he may 
proceed freely and without embarrassment, for neither he nor 
his attorney need fear that his evidence will not fit in with that 
of all other honest witnesses. 

The scientific spirit is strongly inclined to be altruistic and 
purely ideal. It pays minimum attention to the national bound- 
ary lines drawn between the different groups of men and 
women who truly possess it. The successful scientist is as 
familiar with progress made in his own subject in Russia, or 
in the Argentine, or in Japan as he is with results obtained in 
his own country. The journals of his science come to him in 
many languages, and he who ceases to read these journals, 
who neglects to make the results obtained in other lands a part 
of his technical equipment, is already moving in the retrograde 
direction. The real scientist, if left unembarrassed by the 
selfish acts of others, is as unselfishly international as any man 
who can be found. 

We have referred to the problem of advancing the state of 
mind of those who are most in need of advancement. This is 
very difficult and slow in a self-ruled country which must get its 
enlightenment from the outside. Very little can be done for such 
people by offering them theory; that is even less efficient than 
addressing them in the Sanskrit language would be. They can 
learn Sanscrit, but we cannot inculcate the scientific spirit by 
using words alone. The force of concrete example is not entirely 
lost. Beneficient results of sanitary methods so successfully ap- 
plied in Cuba, New Orleans, and Panama have made a favorable 
impression throughout the whole of the Americas. The need of 
employing the same methods is acknowledged in the most be- 
nighted parts of tropical America, but the difficulty lies in getting 
the work done. It is less trouble for the easy-going authorities to 
let the people take care of themselves in the good old way than it 
is to exercise eternal vigilance over the breeding ground of the 



CONFEEENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 403 

mosquito, to exclude the mosquitoes from the residences, and to 
install proper sewage and water systems. 

The splendid work of American sanitary services in the Philip- 
pine Islands is a matter for pride and congratulation, both in 
the Philippines and in America. It is serving as a beacon light 
to the tropical Orient in health problems ; it promises to be truly 
international in its effect ; its successes have made a tremendous 
impression upon health officials in both neighboring and far 
countries and islands. Dr. Heiser, of the Rockefeller Founda- 
tion, is authority for statements of progress which I shall use. 
' ' Over ten million vaccinations were made in the Philippines with- 
out the loss of a life or a limb. As province after province fell 
into line, the disease disappeared in the wake of the vaccinators 
so that the number of deaths in the Islands was reduced from 
forty thousand per annum to a few hundreds. ' ' The construction 
of a pure water system and a sewer system, the improvements in 
conditions affecting the dread diseases of beri-beri and tuber- 
culosis, the sequestration of lepers, and other factors operated by 
the American services reduced the death rate in the city of 
Manila from forty-seven per thousand in the year 1904 to twenty- 
three per thousand in 1914. This is an annual saving of five 
thousand lives in a city of only two hundred thousand people; 
the life of one inhabitant in every forty. The total saving of life 
in the whole group of islands is conservatively estimated at sixty 
thousand per annum ; and we must not overlook the related and 
equally important fact that the lives of the people as a whole 
have been lived on a higher plane. The splendid results have led 
to the adoption of cooperative measures by the health authorities 
in a dozen oriental countries, extending from the Philippines in 
the east to Egypt on the west. Could there be a better example 
of international science as a factor in advancing civilization 
amongst backward and neglected peoples? Nor should we fail 
to mention the good effects, reflexively, upon the peoples of our 
own and other similar countries. One cannot remove beams from 
a neighbor's eye without having attention called to the motes in 
his own eye. Health officers returning from successful services 
in the Philippines have been surprised by and ashamed of the 
unsanitary conditions and the lax enforcement of health laws in 



404 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

many American cities. The decided improvements in our sani- 
tary practices in the past decade received their original impulse 
via Cuba and Panama and the Philippines. 

The subject of international cooperation in science is an in- 
teresting one. Cooperation may be a good thing, but not if it 
coordinates and crystallizes plans too completely and has the 
effect of stereotyping the processes. The plan which increases 
the output of valuable results but restricts the development of 
individualism in research is, on the whole, unfortunate. Nothing 
can take the place of new methods in the advancement of science. 
Cooperation depending upon plans made at international con- 
gresses of science has its advantages, but these advantages do not 
lie chiefly on the technical side. The personal acquaintance of 
colleagues in the different nations is more helpful in the long run 
than the formulating of working programmes. Such meetings 
of scientists have been useful in the past, it is true, in the estab- 
lishing of international units and standards, and in the discussion 
of larger plans for the future, and they have done something to 
improve the spirit of international relationships; but we have to 
recognize that good influences of this kind may receive the bless- 
ing or the curse of diplomacy. The astronomers determined the 
proper positions for the stones which mark the boundary line 
between the United States and Canada, from the Lake of the 
Woods to the Pacific, following the forty-ninth parallel of lati- 
tude, and the two governments cemented the good results by 
covenanting to build no forts along that line, nor yet along the 
boundaries in the Great Lakes region and the river and land lines 
to the far Atlantic Ocean. 

It has been my observation that the scientists of one nation 
are as ready to bestow any prizes or honors in their control upon 
their colleagues in other lands as upon their own countrymen. 
That is as it should be. Whether this practice will abide with us 
and be universal in application in future is open to grave doubt. 
It depends in part upon the outcome and effects of the Great 
War. If one of the belligerent countries continues the well 
defined policy of excessive paternalism within its borders and 
physical force as the basis of its relations with other lands, 
cooperation with the scientists of that country will be difficult, 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 405 

and perhaps will be limited to a formal interchange of publica- 
tions. 

There appear to be well authenticated cases of scientific dis- 
coveries having been concealed, or at least the discussion of them 
formally suppressed, even before the outbreak of the present war, 
because these discoveries promised to have a military value. 
Such practices are counter to the principle that discoveries in 
science are for the good of mankind in general, and they make 
international cooperation difficult. 

Poison gas has been developed on a large scale by the German 
chemists and applied by their government in open violation of 
the accepted laws of war. Soldiers have been done to death with 
indescribable torture and with no more shadow of legality than 
if other men of the same regiment had been slowly put to death 
by the same means in German prison pens. Will the chemists of 
the allied nations cooperate with German chemists after the war 
as if nothing out of the way had happened ? 

The leading German astronomer — a splendid man, peace be to 
his ashes — was stationed in Belgium during the first year of the 
war, in charge of the meteorological service which informed the 
Zeppelins when the weather conditions were favorable for flights 
over London and Paris. "Will the London and Paris astronomers 
take kindly to cooperation with German astronomers after the 
war? That question has already been discussed in astronomical 
journals.* 

German scientists, hundreds of them, petitioned their govern- 
ment for the unrestricted submarine warfare which finally 
brought the United States into the war, and it is known that 
German professors gloated over the sinking of the ''Lusitania" 
and its innocent victims and its perfectly legal cargo. Will 
these facts influence the decision of scientists for or against 
cooperation ? Should we American scientists make a forceful and 



* Now that war has been made less sportsmanlike than it was formerly, 
it is a question what the decision will be. Will it continue the practice 
of a century ago as illustrated by the following incident? The intimate 
relationship between the Paris Academy of Sciences and the Eoyal Society 
of London was illustrated in a striking manner when Sir Humphrey Davy 
visited Paris while France and England were at war with each other. He 
was received with the highest honors, awarded a gold medal, and elected 
a foreign member. 



406 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBiVIA SEMICENTENABY 

dignified protest by refusing our personal cooperation, or should 
we let bygones, of whatever character, be bygones? It seems to 
me our course of action must depend upon a changed or un- 
changed spirit in the offending nation. We must be self-respect- 
ing men first and scientists afterward. 

The problems of the Pacific region are many and of great 
magnitude, and every practicable form of cooperation in solving 
them is desirable ; not according to plans hastily formed and more 
hastily adopted, in the enthusiasm of the moment, but only after 
the most careful consideration. In any subjects requiring high 
technique, trained judgment, and sustained effort, it were folly 
to enter into cooperative arrangements unless the participants are 
essentially equal in qualifications. Disappointment and ill-feel- 
ing would be the natural results. 

Meteorology is a subject whose elements pay no attention to 
the man-made boundaries of the nations. It is a science, but as 
yet a deductive science to a very limited extent. We are not very 
successful in appraising the forces concerned in our storms, nor 
in predicting their detailed effects. The problems are extremely 
complicated, and on a cosmic scale. We are dependent, perhaps 
more than in any other science, upon observations made from day 
to day. The storms of our own Pacific states form to the west 
of us, we seldom know just where ; some certainly in the higher 
latitudes of the north Pacific and others in Siberia; little is 
known concerning their paths except that they in general travel 
east south-easterly; and they leave our coast states on their 
journey across America, rapidly or slowly, depending principally 
upon what is ahead of and behind them in the way of barometric 
conditions. The defects in our Pacific states predictions and the 
slowness of improvements in the predicting systems are due in 
large measure to lack of knowledge of the daily atmospheric con- 
ditions to the west and northwest of us. Under normal com- 
mercial conditions, not now existing, the ships of many nations 
plow the north Pacific, and it would be practicable in these days 
of wireless telegraphy to report once or twice daily the weather 
conditions at the points where the individual ships happen to 
be. The cost of such service, though running into the tens of 
thousands of dollars per year, v/ould be negligible in comparison 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 407 

with the good accomplished. Father Algue's excellent typhoon 
warnings sent out from the Manila Observatory have on occasions 
saved millions of money and hundreds of lives. The hurricane 
warnings of the United States Weather Bureau in single storms 
undoubtedly save more value in ships and cargoes, not to mention 
human lives, than the annual cost of the service in the whole 
nation. The extremely successful cooperation of the Canadian 
and American governments in reporting weather conditions, 
especially in the Canadian west and our own northwest, is a 
happy illustration of the good effects of internationalism in a 
scientific matter. The central office of the U. S. Weather Bureau 
in Washington receives daily weather reports from a station in 
the Philippine Islands, from another in China, and from a third 
in Japan. The daily report from Siberia was discontinued with 
the outbreak of the war. There are bi-daily reports from Alaska, 
Honolulu, and Midway Island, and similar reports are expected 
soon from Fanning Island. The captains of most steamers keep 
a record of the weather during each voyage, on blanks furnished 
by the Weather Bureau, but these records are not available for 
use in forecasting the storms encountered which are headed in 
our direction. There are always vast areas of the Pacific in which 
the weather conditions are unknown to the forecaster. The exten- 
sion of the daily reporting system (by wireless to the nearest 
wireless station and thence by cable or wireless relay) to islands 
and steamers in the Pacific as far as practicable should be 
encouraged, not only for ephemeral purposes but for the more 
rapid development of meteorology as a science. 

The Pacific region is the chief locus of seismic activity on our 
globe. The knowledge to be gained through seismic investigation 
is very important in the pure science of the earth and as a guide 
to engineering and architectural construction in the Pacific 
nations. The Japanese school of seismology, following John 
Milne and including Omori and many others, the veteran French 
seismologist Montessus de Ballore in Chile, Klotz and others in 
Canada, the Americans Jaggar and Wood in Hawaii, Maso in the 
Philippines, and a few others here and there in the Pacific 
region, are alreadj^ cooperating informally with their many col- 
leagues in the United States. It is ^^n fortunate that the number 



408 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

of well qualified men who give their major effort to seismology 
is not greater. Delicate instrumental equipment and trained 
observers are urgently needed at many points in and around the 
Pacific Ocean. The full value of much that is done at the few 
observing stations today is not realizable because stations at other 
strategic points in the Pacific area do not exist. The seismologic 
records obtained in Berkeley, in the Hawaiian Islands, in Japan, 
in the Philippines, and elsewhere would be vastly more valuable 
if they could be correlated with the records made at many missing 
points. A large increase in the number of stations supplied with 
the best instruments and with staffs of well trained men giving 
their entire time to the subject would be a paying investment. 

Closely related subjects are the geology and palaeontology of 
the Pacific area. In Canada, Japan, Australasia, Siberia, and 
the United States are many native investigators of great merit; 
too many, in fact, to make practicable the mentioning of names. 
In the other Pacific nations collectively are a very few native and 
a very few alien students of these subjects. Many parts of the 
field remain to be covered, even in a superficial way. It is an 
illuminating fact that several able men who have written exten- 
sively on geology or palaeontology of a given Pacific country, 
China, for example, have never been in that country, but have 
based their work upon the specimens of rocks, minerals, and 
fossils gathered and supplied by others. 

The anthropology and ethnology of the Pacific region have 
made progress here and there, notably in the coastal states of 
North America, but they are still in their infancy, whether we 
are concerned with the comparatively simple product of the 
islands and some of the continental nations or with the complex 
products of Spanish America. 

The sciences of zoology and botany, so interesting and valu- 
able for their own sakes as pure sciences, and so important as 
aids in the development of bacteriology and agriculture, have 
their valuable contributors on the English-speaking borders and 
islands of the Pacific and in Japan, but they are very sparsely 
distributed throughout other Pacific lands. The field is rich in 
problems inviting solution. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 409 

There is the subject of oceanography itself : the Pacific Ocean, 
the greatest natural feature of the earth, with an endless variety of 
interests for the peoples on its borders, lies at our feet and invites 
study. Technically we have not gone much beyond the begin- 
nings of knowledge concerning the Pacific, its animal and vege- 
table life, its currents, its influence upon land life, its history. 
This is of course said with due regard to the excellent work 
accomplished by the "Beagle" and the "Challenger" expedi- 
tions, by the Carnegie Institution's magnetic survey, by Agassiz, 
by Admiral Makaroff, by the Scripps Institution at La Jolla, and 
by many other men and organizations. The subject is vast, and 
every nation on the shores of the Pacific has a duty to perform. 

For several years I have noticed with satisfaction a growing 
tendency of my California colleagues, in the geologic, ethnologic, 
and biologic groups of sciences, to devote their long vacations or 
their sabbatical years and half years to the study of special prob- 
lems in special parts of the Pacific area. A considerable number 
of such studies have already been made under these conditions. 
It seems to me this practice is most commendable, and should 
be encouraged and assisted. Why rush always to Europe for the 
free year? Why not recuperate and learn in the unexplored 
Pacific lands and waters, both far away and at our doors ? 

Physics, chemistry, and mathematics have their quiet and 
successful workers in the English-speaking Pacific countries — 
especially California — and in Japan, with only an occasional 
contributor, here and there, in other Pacific lands. These, how- 
ever, are fundamental sciences, not concerned especially with the 
Pacific region ; but to them all the other sciences appeal for help. 

Climate and the inherent interest of man in his cosmical sur- 
roundings have done much for the development of astronomy in 
California and Arizona. There is prospective progress in astron- 
omy at the splendid observatory of the Canadian Government 
now nearing completion on Vancouver Island, British Columbia ; 
the branch of the Harvard College Observatory at Arequipa, 
Peru, and the D. O. Mills Observatory of the University of Cali- 
fornia at Santiago, Chile, have at least surpassed the expecta- 
tions of their organizers ; there has been good work at a Japanese 
international latitude observatory; and something has been ac- 



410 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

complished at the rather extensively equipped Australian obser- 
vatories. Other observatories exist in the Pacific region, but they 
have thus far not justified their existence, at least so far as their 
telescopes are concerned; they are chiefly engaged with weather 
observations. 

The Pacific region has contributed splendidly in anatomy, 
bacteriology, medicine, surgery, and sanitation. The contribii- 
tions from Japan and from California have been in good quantity 
and of a very high order. I have already referred to applied 
bacteriology and sanitation at Panama and in the Philippines. 
Japan 's success with sanitation and surgery in the Russo-Japanese 
war set a surprisingly high standard for the rest of the world, 
an example of tremendous influence in all progressive nations 
since the close of that war. 

Agriculture is the basis of prosperity and happiness in our 
own land, and it is even more important in the life of all other 
Pacific nations, for not one considerable nation amongst them has 
as yet developed its manufacturing and its mining to the state 
of those industries in America ; the Pacific nations are essentially 
agricultural countries. The application of scientific principles 
to agriculture in the United States, it is scarcely necessary to 
say, has been rapid and extremely successful, and is, in fact, one 
of the notable accomplishments of our generation. Agriculture 
has here become a science and a successful art. 

In the Hawaiian Islands, where the chief product is sugar, 
the Sugar Planters' Association maintains a thoroughly efficient 
experiment station to improve the quality and quantity of the 
island output. The Hawaiian College of Agriculture and the 
activities of our Department of Agriculture are successfully prO' 
moting the varied agricultural interests in the islands. 

In the Philippines the Bureau of Agriculture, organized in 
1902 by our government, and the Department of Agriculture of 
the University of the Philippines, organized about 1906, have 
advanced the interests of a diversified agriculture, and their prac- 
tical successes are appreciated and welcomed bj'- the natives. 

Japan possesses a thoroughly modern organization for the 
promotion of agriculture through research, instruction, and 
demonstration, patterned closely after the American system of 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 411 

agricultural education. The results have been strikingly bene- 
ficial, as we should expect, not only concerning products long 
familiar to the Japanese, but as to growing in Japan certain raw 
materials formerly imported. The scientific papers published by 
Japanese agriculturists rank with the best contributions of our 
own and European investigators. 

China is progressing rapidly in the new agriculture. The gov- 
ernment has established agricultural colleges and experiment 
stations in many of the provinces. These are manned chiefly by 
Chinese professors who as students attended our agricultural 
colleges under the auspices of the Chinese Government. It is a 
deep satisfaction to know that these Chinese students in America 
were supported from the surplus of the Boxer Indemnity Fund, 
returned to China as an act of good will by the United States 
Grovernment. These Chinese institutions are making excellent 
headway against the old and inefficient farming methods of their 
country. 

In agricultural progress Canada and Australasia are keepin^g 
pace with the nations already mentioned. 

There are organizations in other Pacific nations to promote 
agricultural interests within their boundaries, but most of these 
have met with meager or limited success. Here again the absence 
of an influential middle class is unfortunate. The lot of the 
agriculturists in many lands, especially those to the south of us, 
is a sad one. 

The need of increased production of food stuffs and raw 
manufacturing materials is painfully evident to the world today, 
and all well organized and seriously administered investments to 
that end may safely count upon abundant returns in wealth and 
happiness. 

The native nations of the Pacific have been slow in contribut- 
ing to the theory and practice of civil, electrical, mechanical, and 
mining engineering. The planning and constructing of an im- 
portant bridge or tunnel, vital to the success of some great 
transportation project, the installation of a hydroelectric plant or 
a water system, and the development of coal and iron mines are 
great and tangible responsibilities, and recourse has naturally 



412 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMIOENTENABY 

been to imported engineers of proved experience and judgment ; 
and so it happens that the native engineer has not had his oppor- 
tunity to develop. It seems probable that the making of im- 
provements along the lines of the higher engineering in these 
nations will for many years be under foreign supervision. 

This survey of the state of science in the Pacific region and 
of the needs and prospects of the future is fragmentary and of 
little value beyond the limited purpose of appraising the more 
important conditions which will affect the civilizations of the 
Pacific. At some points in this address I have spoken rather 
discouragingly of these conditions; but any apparent strain of 
pessimism in my comments is intended for the past and present, 
and not for the future. I believe the conviction is growing upon 
anthropologists, psychologists, and thoughtful men generally that 
the peoples of the different races are created much more nearly 
equal in mental equipment than they were formerly assumed to 
be. I should consider it unsafe and certainly unscientific to speak 
of the white race as superior in native mentality to the yellow 
and brown races. The differentiation which we observe so easily 
in many quarters seems rather to be the product of differences 
in the prevailing philosophies of life, in the educational systems, 
in the climates, in the general environment, running back through 
many generations. The world has learned much of value from the 
Japanese race in the last fifteen years, and it is a safe prediction 
that Japan will be in the vanguard of intellectual progress in the 
future. Can any one claiming to be acquainted with that other 
wonderful race, the Chinese, question the excellence of their 
native equipment in mind and body? What may we not expect 
of China when released from its sedative and deterrent phil- 
osophy ? China has not yet been shown the spiritual superiority 
of other civilizations; she has suffered from the land-grabbing 
propensities and the officiousness of the diplomacies practiced by 
the Christian nations. Has hermit nation ever responded more 
promptly to golden rule treatment than China did to the open 
door and the territorial integrity of the diplomacy of John Hay ? 
Little can be done for backward peoples so long as they repose 
in the blankets of fatalism ; little need be expected from sending 
them theory alone or teachers alone; but they will respond to 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 413 

example which proves its worth so plainly that they may see with 
their own eyes and feel with their own hands. Whether they 
will respond quickly or slowly will depend mainly upon their 
philosophy. Our own universities and our research institutions 
are the source and centers of these good influences, in that they 
have developed and are further developing the sciences of bacteri- 
ology, medicine, sanitation, engineering, and agriculture, and the 
men trained in these sciences by the universities have gone forth 
to practice at Panama, in the Philippines, in the mountains of 
Peru, in the cities and plains of China. Their leaven is working 
day and night in ways comprehended by the most ignorant of 
men. The desire for better conditions of daily life, the eagerness 
for elementary education, the welcome for universities, will surely 
follow. In due time education in its more abstract and purely 
idealistic phases will be in demand. The names of individual 
investigators now so scarce in many lands will become increas- 
ingly numerous. To assist the evolutionary process in many back- 
ward nations of the Pacific in the coming generations is the 
burden, and it should be the pleasure of the great universities of 
today. We must not expect that all such progress will be satis- 
factory, or that it will run through the same conventional mold. 
The latitude factor as affecting climate cannot be entirely 
ignored. Is it possible to imagine a more advantageous geograph- 
ical position, a more favorable climate and a better intellectual 
atmosphere for efficiency in the development of the Pacific civi- 
lizations than precisely those possessed by the universities of the 
Pacific States of our own land ? 

In this noble work of the present and succeeding generations 
we hope for and expect strong cooperative help from the great 
Dominion on our north and from the wonderful island empire 
which faces us across the sea. 



414 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 

THIRD SESSION, CONTINUED 

Chairman, Dr. Barton Warren Evermann 
Director of the Museum, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco 

OCEANOGRAPHIC AND METEOEOLOGIC PROBLEMS OF 
THE NORTH PACIFIC 

The chairman : I think we may regard ourselves as fortu- 
nate in being able to be in Berkeley this week, as it affords an 
opportunity to attend not only the meetings of the Western 
Society of Naturalists but other meetings of interest, particu- 
larly certain conferences relating to the North Pacific. 

I may say that the Scientific Research Committee of the 
Pacific Division of the American Association last year when 
war came offered its services to the State Council of Defense, 
and under authority of the State Council of Defense that Com- 
mittee and various other committees, or subcommitees, that were 
organized under it, have been endeavoring to do what they can 
in the interest of science and its relations to the war. One of 
the committees is a committee entitled * ' Committee on Zoological 
Investigations. ' ' Among various things to which that committee 
has directed its attention are matters relating to the fisheries, 
and out of that, the work which that committee has done along 
fishery lines, sprang the suggestion as to the necessity of greater 
knowledge concerning the meteorologic, oceanographic, and bio- 
logic features of the North Pacific ; and it was suggested that a 
conference to afford opportunity for discussing those questions 
might be held at the semicentenary exercises of the University 
of California. 

That suggestion was acted upon, and this is the first public 
session at which such questions will be discussed. 

Professor W. E. Ritter of the University of California, who 
is Director of the Scripps Institute for Biological Research, has 
been deeply interested in these questions, and Professor Ritter 
will now speak to us. 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL BELATIONS 415 



THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE SUGGESTION CON- 
CERNING THE INTERNATIONAL EXPLORATION 
OF THE NORTH PACIFIC 

William E. Ritter, B.S., A.M., Ph.D. 

Professor of Zoology and Director of Scripps Institute for Biological 

Eesearch, University of California 

Mb. chairman, ladies, and gentlemen : As Director Ever- 
mann, who is chairman of the Committee on Zoological Investi- 
gation, has indicated, the idea of proposing a comprehensive 
examination or survey of the North Pacific Ocean came directly 
out of the industrial and economic problems that arose in the 
course of the investigation by this committee of the food supply 
from the sea, and especially through its dealings with the fisheries 
during the last summer. I desire to emphasize the fact then 
that this idea has come from the necessities that loomed up before 
this committee with the questions that arose concerning the fish- 
eries, the kelp problem and other resources of the Pacific. 

Briefly stated, it is a question of resources. Is the North 
Pacific Ocean yielding now to the benefit of mankind in the way 
of food, clothing, and other things to the fullest extent, and 
Avhat may it yield in the future? 

I should like first to call your attention to Bulletin No. 5 
that has just been published, the title of which is ' ' The Resources 
of the North Pacific Ocean; Their Extent, Utilization and Con- 
servation. ' ' 

This bulletin is a general survey of the problems that faced 
us during the summer as we were working. I shall confine my- 
self today to the most general aspect of the problem, and first 
of all to the biological aspect. 

It turns out, as one looks into the matter, that already the 
fisheries, using the term in a broad sense to cover the fur seal 
fisheries of the Pacific, the cod fisheries of Alaska and of the 
Siberian coast, the halibut fisheries, and the salmon fisheries of 



416 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

Alaska and the British Columbia coast, and then, coming down 
into our own territory, the sardine industry and the tuna fish- 
eries — all of these together present a problem that involves the 
whole border of the Pacific. The question is to determine what 
supply this great area is contributing now and may contribute, 
and also how permanent it may be. How much may the great 
populations that are already existing around the shores of this 
ocean expect from the seas for supplementing the food supply? 
The problem you will realize is a vast one. I say it is vast 
because of the great area involved, and because of the intricacy 
of the problem of the relationship of the organisms of the sea to 
the fundamental food supply. 

You will understand that in the ocean there is the same 
problem of pasturage that the land presents for cattle. There 
must be a fundamental plant supply as a basis for everything 
that the sea produces. It is well known to science at the present 
time that the waters are more productive than the earth. It is 
perfectly obvious that if the pressure of population becomes really 
great all over the world these resources of the sea and water will 
be brought under requisition far more extensively than is now 
the case. It will be the business of science to develop these re- 
sources and to see that they are conserved after they have been 
developed. We can never get it under the same degree of control 
as agriculture, and it must be more a matter of pure science than 
agriculture is. 

At the discussion tomorrow afternoon perhaps I shall say a 
little more about the details of the problem. The problems that 
will be taken up this afternoon are of the most general sort. Of 
course we all know about the question of the fur seals, and that 
there is now an international treaty between the United States, 
Great Britain, Russia, and Japan ; and it seems to me as though 
the problem is pretty nearly solved. The seals have increased 
in number, and if the law is kept, the fur seals will be saved for 
all future generations of man, and might be increased almost 
indefinitely if it were desirable to do so. All the great fisheries 
are coming under the same ruling, to a greater or less extent, as 
they present the same sort of problem. But are the resources 
unlimited ? That is the point upon which I wish briefly to speak 
at this time. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ' 417 

The majority of those interested in this problem hold the 
view that so far as the great fisheries are concerned, the herring, 
halibut, salmon, cod, and so on, the supply is so enormous that 
the efforts of man can have no effect. There is no need of any 
concern about the depletion of these particular fisheries. But 
it is a fact that these conclusions have been reached by studies on 
the Atlantic Ocean, the North Atlantic especially, and the Medi- 
terranean. And as it is certainly true that the Pacific Ocean 
is a very different area of water in many respects, it vnll hardly 
be safe to conclude deductively that our great fisheries here are 
as unlimited as the fisheries of the Atlantic. 

First, certain of the fisheries are already showing signs of 
depletion, notably the halibut fisheries on the "Washington coast. 
Of course, we know the seals and whales and otters have become 
depleted, so that we are faced by the unavoidable question, is 
the North Pacific as fertile, is it as productive in animal life, 
in organisms, as the North Atlantic? Now, the grounds for a 
question of that sort will present themselves to one's mind very 
quickly if he thinks of the structure, the nature, and the size of 
the North Pacific Ocean as contrasted with the North Atlantic, 
and that is why I have had this globe brought here, to bring out 
some of these matters. 

You are all in a general way familiar with what the North 
Pacific Ocean is. Here is North America, and Alaska here, and 
the Bering Sea, and then the Arctic Coast. Now, the one notice- 
able feature is the great expanse of water from San Francisco 
to Panama, unbroken by islands and shoals. There are very 
few rivers flowing into the Pacific ; in other words, there is very 
little fresh water. The isolation of the Pacific from the Arctic as 
contrasted with the open passageway between the Atlantic and 
the Arctic is also to be noted, and the great icebergs in the At- 
lantic do not occur in the Pacific. Another feature that I call your 
attention to is the fact that south of San Francisco and extending 
down to the end of Lower California there are no rivers of any 
consequence emptying into the Pacific Ocean. The drainage area 
of North America is, at least two-thirds of it, toward the east. 
The Pacific area is getting extremely little fresh water. Let me 
turn around to the Atlantic and you will see at once that in the 
North Atlantic there is a far greater area of shallow water ; there 



418 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

is direct commuiiication from the North Atlantic to the Arctic ; 
and then there is the great drainage into the Atlantic from the 
North American continent. Those are some of the prominent 
differences between the Atlantic and the Pacific. I will not go 
into the discussion of it any farther at this time. The whole 
point is that knowledge of marine botany and marine zoology 
has now reached a point which makes it clear that the physical 
differences of the Pacific make it somewhat less productive than 
the Atlantic. The fisheries in the Atlantic are in shallower 
water; the rivers empty into the Atlantic, and we know the 
incursion of fresh water fertilizes the sea; we know that the 
icebergs make the North Atlantic rich. These special features 
are lacking in the North Pacific. So the question whether the 
great expanse of the North Pacific is quite as productive for 
living beings as the North Atlantic is a problem of such vast 
scope that it really becomes intercontinental. It is too large a 
problem for any single institution. "We have worked assiduously 
to discover things, but most of the things we learned suggested 
yet larger j)roblems. 

The moment we began to reflect on the subject, then the 
question of the other neighboring sciences arose, and the far- 
reaching problems that confronted them in like fashion. There 
is the question of circulation, the Japanese Current that we have 
been talking about in a haphazard way for years. We know 
something of the biological influences, of the difference in the 
bottom deposits of the Pacific as contrasted with the Atlantic, 
and so on. It becomes obvious at once that there is before us a 
whole series of sciences involved. Oceanographers and meteor- 
ologists recognize them as belonging to the domain of cosmic 
physics ; and in direct parallel we have biological problems that 
we might call cosmic biology. 

How then is the question going to be worked out? Shall 
some nation undertake it? No single organization can do it. 
The Carnegie Institution has made a survey of all the waters 
of the earth, but that is comparatively simple. Five of the 
nations of northern Europe together made an investigation of 
the North Sea, which is only a pond as compared to this vast 
expanse here. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 419 

In planning for these conferences we tried to get represent- 
atives of the various departments of science, especially of ocean- 
ography, meteorology, and biology. As Dr. Campbell has so 
well cautioned, there should be no precipitousness, no under- 
taking things without the most careful deliberation ; and we hope 
that in the conferences to be held this week the problems pre- 
sented will be so concrete and the discussions of those problems 
so pertinent that not only will the scientific and economic inter- 
ests be served but that they will point the way to the further 
knowledge we need. 

Shall it be done, in the first place, by a small, compact organ- 
ization of scientific men among themselves representing the 
different nations? I am pleased to have certain assurances that 
the Japanese Government will be very glad to send represent- 
atives if some such move as that is made. The great question 
we want to aim at in these conferences is what the necessary 
steps shall be, if there shall be any. That is, can we decide 
whether it is too vast a thing, too uncertain a thing to attempt 
to do anything with, or should it be attempted ; and if it should 
be attempted, what should be the procedure ? These conferences 
will of course be entirely preliminary, and the hope is that we 
may in some way, before this week is ended, arrive at some de- 
cision with regard to the whole matter. 

Now, the inevitable international just as the inevitable inter- 
continental nature of the thing is obvious enough. It will involve 
the legal and political concern of things. There is no escaping 
that, and there is no reason why we should try to escape it. 
I am only going to mention this particular phase of the matter 
now. Assuredly it ought to be the aim of the scientists to get 
into cooperation with the international lawyers and diplomats 
as soon as possible. I am assured by men of international stand- 
ing, with whom I have discussed the matter, that there is un- 
doubtedly going to be, at the close of the war, a revision of the 
old zone of sovereignty on the high seas. It was based, you 
know, on the old idea of three miles of the range of a cannon 
shot. The new zone will extend to twenty miles instead of three, 
and for the same old reason that twenty miles is about the range 
of a gun now. 



420 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

I want to fix upon the minds of the scientific men that the 
Marine League, as it was established and maintained in its funda- 
mental conception, paid not the slightest attention primarily to 
the problems of the seas as a producer of food for men. It seems 
to me that the scientific and industrial interests of the world 
demand that this aspect of the sea be recognized. 

There is nothing clearer, looking at the matter scientifically, 
with reference to oceanographic problems, and the bottom of 
the sea, and the character of the coast everywhere in a physical 
sense, to simply lay down twenty miles in an arbitrary way and 
extend it around the continent of the earth; for the zone of 
national sovereignty is not founded on anything that is strictly 
scientific and has no reference at all to the fisheries and pro- 
ductive interests of the sea. I admit, very frankly, that it may 
be difficult for scientific men to agree on something more rational, 
but at least it ought to be tried. 

At the conference this afternoon there will be presented either 
contributions that have been sent by men who were not able to 
be present, or addresses by men who are here. We shall have 
those now, and tomorrow afternoon the conference will be on 
the biological aspects. 

It should be stated that while we have taken cognizance of 
only the oceanographers, meteorologists, and biologists in the 
programme for these conferences, there are several other sciences 
that are almost as intimately involved. There are the sciences 
of zoology and botany, and it may be that certain phases of 
chemistry also should have been considered; but we decided 
upon these three departments of science as being those obviously 
involved. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 421 



CONFEEENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 

THIRD SESSION, CONTINUED 

THE NORTH PACIFIC AREA IN RELATION TO 

WEATHER OF ADJACENT LANDS, ESPECIALLY 

NORTH AMERICA 

Dr. C. F. Marvin 

The chairman : As Professor Ritter has already stated, in 
arranging for these conferences, an effort was made to secure 
addresses or papers from meteorologists and oceanographers as 
well as from biologists, and a number of distinguished gentle- 
men representing those lines of science were invited to be present, 
or if not able to be present to send papers. 

It is realized that the biological problems are tied up so 
closely with other problems that they can not be discussed with- 
out a consideration of the meteorological and oceanographic ques- 
tions involved. That was brought out very plainly in the fur- 
seal discussions between Great Britain and the United States. 
A number of years ago the fur-seal question was a burning issue, 
and the question was left to a tribunal to pass upon. This 
tribunal made certain regulations under which the fur-seal fish- 
ery was carried on for many years. The United States did not 
win out in the Paris Tribunal one hundred per cent. It got 
only fairly bearable conditions. The reasons the United States 
partially failed was because of a lack of knowledge of some of 
the fundamental facts involved. We did not know the biology 
of the fur seals sufficiently. We did not know the relation of 
the fur seals in regard to migration and food to the questions 
of meteorology and oceanography. We had our views and the 
representatives of the United States expressed those views, but 
they did not have the facts to back up their statements ; and as 
a result they did not succeed in securing the regulations for 
which they contended, chiefly because of a lack of adequate 
knowledge. 



422 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

The same difficulty occurred a few years ago when the fish- 
eries along our northern border between the United States and 
Canada were causing friction. In 1908 an International Fish- 
eries Commission was appointed to draw up a set of common 
regulations under which fishing in the waters between the United 
States and Canada should be carried on. When that commission 
entered on its work one of the first difficulties that confronted it 
was a lack of adequate knowledge concerning the fisheries in 
those waters, a knowledge which it would take several seasons, or 
even years perhaps, to obtain. Any regulation, therefore, which 
the commission might propose, or did propose, had to be regarded 
in a measure as tentative. And in the same way with many 
other biological problems with which our Grovernment is con- 
cerned. 

Among the meteorologists invited to be present or who have 
sent papers is Dr. F. C. Marvin, Chief, U. S. "Weather Bureau, 
Washington, D. C. Professor Marvin is unable to be present, 
but he has kindly sent a communication which will be read by 
Professor Beals, U. S. Weather Bureau Forecaster, San Francisco. 

Doctor Marvin : Under specific laws of Congress imposing 
upon it the duty of collecting meteorological and climatic ob- 
servations and of issuing weather and temperature forecasts, 
warnings of storms, hurricanes, floods, frosts, cold waves, and 
the like, the Weather Bureau during the past fifty years has 
built up a wonderful daily service of gi-eat economic benefit to 
the nation. California is the center of one of the great sectional 
subdivisions of this service ; and the whole Pacific Coast of North 
America, from and including Alaska southward, is a region of 
great interest to the meteorologist, the climatologist, the profes- 
sional forecaster, and also to seismologists and volcanologists. 
By appropriate congressional action the Weather Bureau is now 
authorized and directed to extend its investigations into the two 
latter fields. It is accordingly greatly interested in a very broad 
way in the suggestions for increasing our knowledge of the North 
Pacific Ocean. 

A topic such as this for discussion is a most fitting feature 
of the programme for the celebration of the Semicentennial of 
the University of California, and the wisdom of the committee 
commands my most cordial commendation. 



CONFERENCE ON INTEENATIONAL BELATIONS 423 

Weather Forecasting. In its years of practical service in 
forecasting, the "Weather Bureau has developed the art of daily 
weather forecasting to a considerable degree. As the problem 
is now viewed we may say broadly that the weather of tomorrow 
or the next day and the day after, for any given locality, is more 
or less dependent upon present weather conditions to the west- 
ward or northwestward of the locality in question. "When this 
idea is applied to the Pacific Coast, especially in its northern 
extent, we meet with grave difficulties because the vast stretches 
of the North Pacific Ocean have always been heretofore and still 
are regions from which telegraphic weather reports are almost 
impossible. The wireless is now beginning to make such reports 
possible, and when peace is again restored no legitimate means 
will be spared by the "Weather Bureau to secure for its Pacific 
Coast Forecaster weather reports by wireless as far from the 
land as may be practicable. 

I must leave to Mr. E. A. Beals, Forecaster of the "Weather 
Bureau for the Pacific Coast district, to tell you, upon the 
authority of a long practical experience, more of the details of 
this problem and what an increase in our knowledge of the 
meteorology of the North Pacific Ocean will mean to his work. 

Causes of Weather Changes. There always appear to be a 
few who strive to convince others that the sequence of terrestrial 
weather conditions, day by day, over a region or a continent is 
somehow directly related to visible spottedness or absence of 
spottedness of the sun, or to some other manifestations of solar 
activity, in addition to the direct thermal radiations which illumi- 
nate and warm the earth with all its varying degrees of intensity. 

On the other hand, the great majority of meteorologists are 
accustomed to ascribe practically all atmospheric motions, both 
local and general, to the gravitational flow resulting from the 
local and general contrasts of temperature over the surface of 
the earth. The daily sequence of sunshine and darkness, the 
varied distribution of clear and cloudy skies ; diversities of sur- 
face, added to contrasts of land and water areas, including the 
phenomena of evaporation, condensation, and precipitation; the 
cycle of the seasons, and, above all, the fluctuating but never- 
theless perpetual contrasts of surface temperatures ranging all 
the way from the heat of the tropics to the intense cold of the 



424 UNIFEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

polar zones. All of these facts constitute a complex series of 
varied and changeable influences, seemingly abundantly adequate 
to cause and explain every feature of our weather conditions, 
however changeable we may find them. These differences and 
contrasts, on the one hand, perpetually disturb the orderly ar- 
rangement of air densities and pressures demanded by gravity. 
The latter, on the other hand, as perpetually and continuously 
set portions of the air in motion, in order to establish and main- 
tain a state of equilibrium ; or, rather, we must clearly recognize 
and say that the ceaseless motions of our atmosphere represent 
in fact the only state of equilibrium possible between gravity, 
on the one hand, and solar heating of the earth, on the other. 

Assuming that the ultimate causes of the major phenomena 
of weather changes are intimately related to the solar heating 
of the earth, is it not obvious that the vast expanse of the North 
Pacific Ocean, indeed, of the Pacific Ocean as a whole, offers a 
unique field for the study of the great phenomena of the general 
circulation of the atmosphere? A field so vast, so uniform, so 
nearly changeless, must greatly simplify all the phenomena of 
surface temperatures, the temperature pressure, humidity, and 
winds of the atmosphere. What meteorologists desire are daily 
systematic observations of water and atmospheric conditions from 
all over this vast ocean area. At the present time such data 
can be obtained from parts of the area only by the observations 
of merchant and other vessels plying their regular courses and 
reporting after long intervals by mail. Action to develop a 
service of this kind was well in hand by the Weather Bureau, 
but has been very greatly impaired and reduced by the war. 

No comprehensive study of the North Pacific Ocean is pos- 
sible without a systematic knowledge of its daily ' ' weather, ' ' but 
the knowledge must not stop with surface conditions. We must 
sound and chart to the highest point possible the ocean of at- 
mosphere above as well as the ocean of water below the surface. 
The extension of knowledge of this vast region, as yet so little 
explored in the strictly scientific sense, is certain to aid very 
directly in improving weather forecasting, not only for the 
Pacific Coast but for the states generally. 

Thus far our thoughts and remarks have been confined strictly 
to ideas of weather. The relation between the oceanic conditions 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 425 

and the "climate" of adjacent continental areas is always an 
interesting and profitable study. It has a practical aspect of 
great value when it can be shown that important, even though 
small, changes in water temperature or circulation of the cur- 
rents of the ocean, or of both, are associated with pronounced 
variations of weather or climate of the adjacent land and conti- 
nental areas. The study and development of the laws and 
relations of these phenomena form the basis of certain legitimate 
seasonal or long-range prognostications or conjectures. 

Every legitimate proposal to extend and increase existing 
knowledge of the meteorology and oceanography of the North 
Pacific Ocean must be welcomed by the Weather Bureau, because 
to a certain extent this area is the breeding ground, or, I should 
better say, an index area from which weather conditions on 
North America for a few days in advance may be inferred with 
greater or less assurance. 

Economic Benefits. Few realize how great are the benefits 
from the work of the Weather Bureau. This work is one endless 
routine of daily service of forecasting and of disseminating infor- 
mation and advices as to present and prospective weather con- 
ditions. Shipping is advised to remain in port upon the advance 
of storms and hurricanes, and the population of flat and low 
lands subject to inundation by storms and tidal waves are warned 
to seek safety. Timely warnings of floods and high waters in 
the gi'eat rivers of the country enable property owners and others 
concerned to seek safety and to protect and secure their interests 
in innumerable ways, where great property damage and losses 
of many kinds would otherwise result. Warnings of snows, cold 
waves, and shippers' forecasts of minimum temperatures have 
a perfectly tangible monetary value to inland transportation, 
utilities commissions, commission merchants, and shippers of per- 
ishable products, live stock, to the stock raising industries, and 
many others little imagined at first to be interested in such 
information. 

In the critical seasons of the year horticulturists, gardeners, 
and others are fully warned of coming frosts, and aided in 
employing protective means for warding off losses and injuries. 
Agriculture and related interests generally throughout the grow- 
ing season are promptly supplied with the fullest advices con- 



426 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

eerning the current weather as it affects the great staple crops 
of cotton, corn, wheat, and the other grains; the sugar and rice 
interests, as well as grazing conditions for cattle and stock of 
various kinds. No effort is spared to serve every possible local 
interest that can be directly benefited by our information, and 
all this great structure of service is certain to be improved and 
perfected in proportion as our knowledge of the North Pacific 
Ocean is refined and extended. 

I cannot close this brief note without recurring to the subjects 
of seismology and volcanology, investigation in which is imposed 
upon the Weather Bureau by law. Here again the Pacific Ocean, 
especially its islands and bordering land areas, is the seat of the 
greatest seismic and volcanic activities of any on the globe. 
These subjects are mentioned here only to say that they cannot 
be omitted from any programme of comprehensive investigation 
of the region of the North Pacific Ocean. 

The prominence which such an investigation is certain to 
acquire as a subject of discussion at the Semicentennial Cele- 
bration of the University of California cannot fail to go far 
toward its realization, in greater or less degree, as the future 
years see the world spared the horrors of the present devastating 
war. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 427 



THE NORTH PACIFIC IN RELATION TO THE WEATHER 
OF ADJACENT LANDS 

Thomas Arthur Blair 

Observer, U. S. Weather Bureau 

The chairman : Mr. Thomas Arthur Blair, Observer, U. S. 
Weather Bureau, Salt Lake City, Utah, was also invited to be 
present. We regret that he was not able to come, but his paper 
will be presented by Mr. Varney. 

1. Introduction. The Latin poet Horace has a passage from 
which we infer that the seas appealed to him mainly as a divider 
and separator of lands and peoples ; but as a result of the progress 
of invention in the years since he lived the ocean has in a great 
measure ceased to be a barrier, and become instead a highway. 
In many other ways we have modified and enlarged our con- 
ception of its relation to the life of man. One of the most 
important of these is in its influence upon that subject of peren- 
nial interest and importance, the weather. Fundamentally this 
influence depends solely upon the different physical properties 
of land and water, and its general manifestations are well known ; 
but when we come to study specific problems in detail we find 
that much remains to be investigated, and this paper, in re- 
viewing some of the general conditions in the North Pacific area, 
will suggest in almost every sentence the need for further obser- 
vation and interpretation. 

2. Pressure and Circulation. The general distribution of air 
pressure in the North Pacific is briefly as follows: The mean 
annual pressure shows an area of high barometer west of south- 
ern California, with an isobar of 30.20 inches, extending from 
about longitude 132 W. to 153 W., and latitude 28 N. to 38 N., 
elongated in a northeast-southwest direction. The area of above- 
normal pressure extends from 165 E. to and including the coast 
of the United States, south of San Francisco. North and west 



428 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY 

of this the pressure is below normal, with an inclosed low area 
centered over the Aleutian Islands, having an inner isobar of 
29.70 inches, which extends almost to Kamchatka, and is thus 
practically parallel with the anticy clonic area. This "Low" 
attains neither the size nor the intensity of the Icelandic "Low," 
but the ' ' High ' ' attains a higher reading than the corresponding 
area in the Atlantic. A depression to 29.80 inches appears also 
in the southwest over Micronesia and the Malay Archipelago, 
extending thence into the upper Indian Ocean. 

In winter the anticyclone decreases slightly, the 30.20 line 
probably disappearing in January, and the "Low" deepens to 
29.60. In summer the "High" increases to 30.30 and extends 
westward ; the low center disappears as an inclosed area, but the 
pressure remains below normal, being about 29.80 over most of 
the northern portion of the ocean. It thus appears that there 
is no great change of gradient from summer to winter. 

The disappearance of the Aleutian "Low" in summer in 
contrast with the permanence of its analogue, the Icelandic 
"Low," is due to the fact that the interiors of Alaska and 
Siberia become warm in summer as compared with the ocean, 
while those of Greenland and Iceland do not. The location of 
the Pacific "High" is determined by the intersection of the 
cold ocean current from the north with the high pressure belt. 
These peaks occur a little to the west of such intersections, where 
mechanical and thermal causes combine to increase the pressure. 
This is the explanation given by Humphreys, which seems ade- 
quate, as the earlier ones of Ferrel and Angot do not. 

In general, the normal wind circulation is less modified in 
the North Pacific than in the Atlantic. This is partly on account 
of its great extent and partly because there is no wide opening 
to the Arctic. In the southwestern portion of the North Pacific, 
however, extending to longitude ]45 E., the circulation is under 
the control of the monsoon of southern Asia, southwest in sum- 
mer and northeast in winter. East of the influence of this 
monsoon, the southeast trades extend a few degrees north of 
the equator at all seasons of the year. There is then a broad 
belt of calms, and north of these, the northeast trades, coming 
out of the area of high pressure. They are weaker than those 
of the Atlantic, but only slightly less persistent. North of the 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 429 

"Horse Latitudes" are the "prevailing westerlies," which are 
modified in winter by the Aleutian depression, becoming on the 
Asiatic side cold, dry, northwesterly winds from the interior of 
northern Asia, and on the American side warm, damp, south- 
westerlies from the ocean. In summer, under the influence of 
the Pacific ' ' High ' ' and the monsoon effect of the western moun- 
tains and plateaus of America, they become southerly in the 
western ocean, and remain southwesterly in the eastern. 

Of the influence of the ocean on the secondary and local 
circulations, the example of the land-and-sea-breezes is very fa- 
miliar and very gratefully received in the interior valleys of the 
coast states. These depend for their best development upon the 
proximity to the ocean of elevated land areas, sufficient to fur- 
nish a considerable "draft." A less pleasing but more impres- 
sive example of Neptune's power is furnished by the typhoons, 
which originate in the western Pacific, north of the equator, move 
west across the Philippines, then curve northeasterly over the 
China coast, Korea, and Japan. The tracks of barometric minima 
in Japan and the adjacent seas are generally across the length 
of the islands from southwest to northeast, the maximum number 
occurring in the winter and spring and the minimum in summer. 
In northern latitudes, the average storm track of winter is across 
the narrow northern ocean from Kamchatka to the mainland of 
Alaska, just north of the string of Aleutian Islands. 

3. Temperature. The mean annual air temperatures over the 
Pacific probably range from 80° F. at the equator to 15° F. over 
the Arctic Circle at Bering Strait. The isotherms are rather 
close together and evenly spaced in the western portion of the 
ocean, presenting no great variations from the normal for the 
latitude. Along the coast of Asia and in Japan, however, they 
are in a slight degree negatively abnormal in all seasons, espe- 
cially in winter. Moving eastward across the ocean, the thermal 
lines spread gradually farther apart, those north of the latitude 
of San Francisco curving northward and those south of this 
latitude curving southward, so that in the western Pacific there 
is a range of only 40° F. from latitudes 20 N. to 60 N., the north- 
ern half becoming abnormally warm for the year and the southern 
half abnormally cool. 



430 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENAB7 

In winter the southern lines become practically parallel with 
the latitudinal lines, but in the north they curve upward even 
more markedly. In summer the southerly lines dip sharply 
downward, indicating a departure of — 10° F. from the solar 
climate in the eastern Pacific. In the north the cold water 
coming out of Bering Strait causes the lines to dip sharply south- 
ward between Kamchatka and the mainland of Alaska ; and this 
area also shows a departure of — 10° F. from the normal. East 
of 160 W. they again turn sharply to the north, and the north- 
east Pacific shows little abnormality for the season. Note this 
truly beneficent action of the ocean on the American coast, cool- 
ing the summers of California and warming the winters of Alaska. 

One of the principal effects arising from the general circu- 
lation of the atmosphere and the distribution of land and water 
is the great difference of temperatures observed on the east and 
west sides of the continents, especially in high latitudes, both 
in the annual means and in the extremes of the seasons. For, 
while the different amount of insolation received from the sun 
is the primary disturber of uniformity of temperature on the 
earth's surface, the different response of land and water to this 
heating effect is the principal control of the actual telluric cli- 
mates as we know them. And herein lies one of the basic reasons 
for extending and perfecting our knowledge of the oceans. 

The ocean by reason of its mobility and great heat capacity 
is the great distributer of solar heat. We readily perceive the 
work done by the air in transporting temperatures from one 
region to another, but the actual transfer of heat from tropic to 
polar regions by the oceans is much greater ; for the heat capacity 
of water is about three thousand times that of air for equal 
volumes. An immense amount of heat is thus slowly accumu- 
lated in the oceans and slowly given out, making a more equable 
distribution, flattening out both the daily and seasonal curves of 
insolation. 

By means of the currents set up and maintained by winds 
and by differences of temperature, this heat is carried over vast 
spaces. "We see the effect on comparing the climates of Siberia 
and the British Isles, of Minnesota and Oregon, of the Hudson 
Bay region and southern coastal Alaska. While in the popular 
impression the direct effects of the Gulf Stream and the Kuro 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 431 

Siwo have been much exaggerated, their great work as carriers 
of heat to northern latitudes is of prime importance. The re- 
searches of 0. Pettersson, Meinardus, Dickson, and others leave 
no doubt that variations in the intensity of the Gulf Stream, 
either in strength of current or in heat stored in water, produce 
great variations in the character of the weather in northern 
Europe. O. Pettersson has shown that changes in the surface 
temperature of the Atlantic off the coast of Norway in winter 
are reflected in fluctuations of air temperature of greater magni- 
tude over central Sweden two or three months later. That similar 
variations occur in the warm drift of the North Pacific with 
similar effects on the temperatures of the western Canadian 
provinces and Alaska can hardly be doubted ; but the surface 
currents of the Pacific have not been studied in the same detail 
as those of the Atlantic, and even their seasonal variations are 
little known. Observations are insufficient in the Atlantic to 
permit the utilization of these fluctuations to attempt long-range 
forecasts, while in the Pacific even the knowledge whether such 
correlated variations exist must await the great extension of our 
observational information. 

4. Precipitation. "With reference to the precipitation of the 
area there is little exact knowledge, but, in general, the northern 
half is stormy and cloudy, and the southern half clear, the cloud- 
iness showing a tendency to be distributed in bands parallel to 
the equator. The control of the ocean over precipitation is hardly 
less marked than over temperature. The final source of all 
moisture, its influence is seen in the abundant precipitation along 
nearly all except Arctic coast lines, and the scanty rainfall of 
great continental interiors. We recognize, of course, in this 
connection as well as in connection with temperature the effect 
of mountain barriers and prevailing wind directions. 

Now, as is well known, the amount of moisture carried in the 
atmosphere increases very rapidly with increase of temperature. 
Hence the value of the ocean currents as transporters of heat to 
the higher latitudes; for without them the moisture content of 
the air over northern oceans would be so small as to reduce 
materially probably the precipitation over adjacent lands. Vari- 
ations in the strength and temperature of these currents may 
be of sufficient magnitude to cause important variations in the 
precipitation of adjacent continents. This must remain largely 



432 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY 

speculative until meteorologists and oceanographers combine to 
furnish the original observations. 

5. Centers of Action. There is, however, another factor in 
the weather of the lands adjoining the Pacific, whose influence 
is better known, but about which much yet remains to be learned. 
I refer to the great permanent or subpermanent areas of high 
and low pressure generally called "centers of action." These 
deserve special attention in this connection, particularly the 
Aleutian "Low." For it is the position and intensity of the 
area of low barometer in the North Pacific which determines 
the character of the winter over that portion of the United States 
and Canada west of the Rocky Mountains, and to a considerable 
extent also of the remainder of these countries. When this 
area extends well eastward and southward, the storm tracks over 
the continent are well to the south, and typical wet months or 
winters occur in California; and when it is pushed northward 
and westward there are characteristic dry winters ^vith storm 
tracks far to the north. 

But this effect is not confined to the coast states and prov- 
inces. The position of this "Low" determines to a great extent 
the tracks of storms over the entire temperate portion of the 
continent. The truly remarkable distribution of temperature 
during the December just past, when there was a departure from 
normal of +12° F. in eastern Oregon and of — 12° F. in north- 
ern Montana, is doubtless a striking example of the influence of 
the position of this area. Though the barometric data to confirm 
this statement are not at hand, the tracks of "Highs" and 
' ' Lows ' ' seem sufficient evidence of it. 

Although the climate of the Asiatic coast is more largely 
continental, Okada has noted that "the weather anomaly of the 
Far East, especially of Japan, is closely and causally related to 
the occasional change in the positions and intensities of these 
atmospheric centers." The grand barometric maximum some- 
times extends westward in July and August sufficiently to cause 
cooler weather in northern Japan. The shifting of the Aleutian 
"Low" eastward probably results in a milder winter in the 
northern portion of the area by lessening the indraft of cold 
northwesterly winds. 

All this brings out clearly the need for systematic and regular 
observations in the North Pacific, even from the standpoint of 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 433 

the forecaster. For instance, a study of the Japan current off 
the coast of Formosa by means of current meters and thermo- 
graphs might be of value in predicting the weather of Japan, 
and possibly even of the American coast, through the influence 
of this current on the temperature of the northern ocean, and 
hence perhaps on the position of the Aleutian ''Low." This is 
speculative ; we do not know to what extent changing currents 
cause variations of intensity or shifting of the areas of high and 
low pressure, nor how far in advance a knowledge of such changes 
would enable us successfully to forecast consequent weather 
changes. The necessity for world-wide data is apparent; for, 
despite the accumulation of great stores of meteorological data, 
much of which has not been fully utilized, new ideas and new 
outlooks are continually calling for more and more data. Mc- 
Adie remarked in 1908: "Over the Pacific, plainly not less but 
more observation are needed. Absence of reports now handi- 
caps forecasters on the Asiatic as well as the American side of 
the Pacific. It is conceivable that with a close working co- 
peration between the Japanese, Indian, Chinese and Philippine 
weather services and those of Mexico, the United States, British 
Columbia and Alaska aided by wireless weather messages from 
vessels at sea, the forecasters would be in a position to under- 
take general forecasts for a period of a week or longer, event- 
ually determining seasonal forecasts." In the ten years since 
that was written there has been considerable progress, and fore- 
casts for a period of a week are now being made, but the actual 
achievement of seasonal forecasts seems as far away as ever, even 
the collection of the informtion upon which the possibility of 
such forecasts might be predicated. 

In this connection, McAdie mentions the shifting of the North 
Pacific "High" simultaneously with the Aleutian "Low"; and 
in recent studies correlating temperature variations on the east 
and west coasts of the United States, I have inferred the same 
phenomenon with reference to the continental "High" and the 
Bermuda "High" of the Atlantic. There appears to be a cor- 
related, synchronous movement of the peaks in the belt of high 
pressure and the low areas to the north of them. This fact seems 
to account for the numerous and surprising correlations of widely 
separated areas, which have been found by various students. For 
instance, Okada has recently shown that the smaller the baro- 



434 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

metric gradient for March on the Asiatic continent, the lower 
the air temperature in northeastern Japan the following July 
and August, and the greater the barometric gradient for March, 
the greater the duration of bright sunshine in July and August, 
these relations depending upon the positions and intensities of 
the continental and oceanic centers of action. 

Clayton and Arctowski have shown a correlation of these 
weather elements with variations of solar radiation, finding some 
parts of the world which vary with the "solar constant," so- 
called, and others oppositely. Clayton notes that some places 
exhibit a sharp change at times from positive to negative cor- 
relation with the sun's emission, seeming to indicate a sudden 
shift in the position of the centers of action; but in my study 
of temperature relations at San Diego and Jacksonville these 
reversals were found to occur at the same time in successive years, 
giving wave-like alternations in the values of the correlation co- 
efficients, apparently not connected with seasonal shiftings of 
atmospheric pressure, and at the same time not random changes. 

This is a very promising field of investigation, possibly lead- 
ing also to seasonal forecasts; but the whole subject is in its 
infancy, and calls for long and detailed analysis of the complex 
changes in the distribution of temperature and pressure over the 
globe. It emphasizes the need of much more extensive and 
thorough observational data over the oceans, and especially over 
the North Pacific, and indicates one of the scientific and prac- 
tical results that will in time accrue from such data. 

6. Conclusion. The modern scientific study of the seas may 
be said to have begun with the voyage of H. M. S. "Challenger," 
and a second great epoch is marked by the formation at Copen- 
hagen of the International Council for the Study of the Sea. 
No good reason appears why meteorogolists, oceanographers, and 
marine biologists of the countries bordering on the North Pacific 
should not unite in a similar council for research along these 
lines. Is it too much to hope that such a result may in a short 
time develop from this conference ? I shall be glad to lend what 
little assistance I may to that end. "The vast field of research 
offered by the ocean calls for international cooperation on a 
large scale," says H. Pettersson. The knowledge that can be 
obtained only in this way is probably a sine qua non of any 
further epoch-making advance in the field of meteorology. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 435 



THE POSSIBILITIES OF LONG-RANGE SEASONAL 
FORECASTS BASED ON OCEAN TEMPERATURES 

Charles Franklin Brooks, Ph.D. 

Instructor in Geography, Yale University 

The chairman : Dr. Charles F. Brooks of Yale University has 
sent a paper which will be presented by Professor Holway of 
the Department of Geography, University of California. 

Professor holway : The committee having charge of this 
conference attempted to arrange these papers in some order, 
showing the range of thought, and they did the best they could, 
having only a short time in which to digest the papers. Dr. 
Brook's paper is one looking directly to the very specific things 
which might be done. 

There has just been handed to me a letter from Dr. Brooks 
to Dr. Ritter, and there are one or two paragraphs here that I 
think should be read. "The subject of long-range weather fore- 
casting possibilities from ocean temperatures interests me greatly. 
In fact, during the past twelve months I have spent most of my 
time available for research in tackling this problem so far as 
the North Atlantic region is concerned. In January this investi- 
gation received official approval, and active cooperation of the 
"Weather Bureau began at once. 

"Were it not for the possibility of getting something useful 
for war purposes in the North Atlantic I think I should have 
turned before now to the Pacific. I am strongly in favor of 
international cooperation for the solution of the problems of 
North Pacific weather. I am willing and, so far as I can see, I 
shall be able to help in at least the preliminaries of such an 
enterprise. ' ' 

In these early stages of inquiry into the possibilities of long- 
range weather forecasting, meteorologists are investigating (1) 
weather periodicity; (2) direct action of solar changes; and (3) 



436 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICEN TEN AEY 

ocean temperatures. The third seems to offer the greatest im- 
mediate prospect of success. For long-range forecasts of the 
weather of the United States we look toward the almost unknown 
Pacific Ocean. The influence of the Atlantic centers of action 
on the seasonal weather character of the eastern United States 
reaches at times to the Rockies; but the effects of the position 
of the Aleutian center of action are felt throughout the United 
States.^ The seasonal weather character of the eastern coast of 
Asia seems bound up immediately with the interplay of the Pacific 
centers of action and that of central Asia. 

We recognize as the immediate basis of our seasonal weather 
abnormalities the variations in the energy of the atmospheric 
circulation, and of the locations of the centers of action. Varia- 
tions in the energy of the atmospheric circulation seem to result 
primarily from the direct effects of the variations in solar energy 
received into the earth's atmosphere. I say 'solar energy' be- 
cause solar heat alone is considered by many to be incapable of 
producing the observed phenomena; and I stipulate 'received 
into the earth's atmosphere,' because changes in the transpar- 
ency of the earth's atmosphere may at times be commensurate 
in importance with the changes in the energy reaching the outer 
limits of the atmosphere. Aside from the general control which 
the atmospheric circulation exerts over the earth's pressure belts, 
the locations of the grand centers of action depend on the re- 
lations between the distribution of surface temperatures of oceans 
and continents. 

Long-range seasonal weather forecasts can probably be made 
on the basis of the ocean temperature controls of the locations 
of the centers of action. The position rather than the strength 
of a center of action determines a season 's temperature character 
of a region, for the direction of the wind is more important than 
its velocity. The direct effects of solar changes might produce 
sudden reversals, such as the country-wide change in the middle 
of February, which at present we cannot forecast ; but these 
would probably be no more disastrous to seasonal weather fore- 
casts than they now are to the daily forecasts. 



1 See Bowie, E. H., and Weightman, E. H., Types of storms of the 
United States and their avei*age movements. Monthly Weather Bev., Supp. 
1, 1914. 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 437 

Before seasonal weather forecasts on the basis of ocean surface 
temperatures can be attempted it will be necessary to j&nd out 
(1) how the surface water temperatures of the ocean control 
the atmospheric pressure and winds, and (2) how the surface 
temperature departures originate and move. Atlantic investi- 
gations point out the way for the solution of this problem in the 
Pacific region. 

Water temperatures cannot affect the atmospheric pressure 
unless they act through the air temperature and humidity. More 
than twenty years ago Otto Pettersson brought out the marked 
parallelism between monthly atmospheric isotherms and isobars 
and the surface water temperatures of the North Sea.- The very 
name 'marine climate' implies the closeness with which atmos- 
pheric conditions follow the limited variations of water temper- 
atures. 

The question arises, does the air temperature stay near the 
water temperature, or does the water temperature follow the air 
temperature? Air temperature affects the water temperature, 
to be sure ; but, as Kriimimel says, sunlight is the main source of 
heat for the ocean surface, and radiation is primarily responsible 
for its cooling.^ He goes on to show that there are three factors 
which disturb the heat exchange of the upper strata: wave 
motion, rainfall, and the disturbance of the surface by different 
air temperatures; and of the three, he says (p. 382): "The 
effect of different temperatured air masses on the sea surface is 
of itself by far the least. The specific heat, which for sea water 
is but little below 1, is for air only 0.00307 ; thus it must take 
heat from vast masses of air in order to warm noticeably the 
surface layer of water. The effect of evaporation will also be 
small." Among the Florida Keys the sharp ups and downs of 
water temperature with the air temperature and to a lesser de- 
gree those which occur in the open ocean are to be considered 
primarily as coincident, and only in a small degree as inter- 
dependent phenomena. The water temperature variations are 
smaller than those of the air because of less rapid movement, 
and the general tendency of water to have smaller ranges in 
temperature. 

2 Ueber die Beziehungen zwischen liydrographischen und meteorolo- 
gischen Phanomenen. Meteorologische Zeitschr., Aug., 1896, pp. 285-321. 

3 Eandbuch der Oseanographie, vol. 1, 1907, p. 380. 



438 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

On account of the effects of water surfaces on air temperature 
and humidity, the tracks of cyclones are markedly influenced by 
them. In describing the two principal hurricane paths, O. L. 
Fassig says that one follows the inside Gulf Stream route and 
the other the line of the northward Atlantic drift oif the north 
and east coasts of the Greater Antilles and Florida.* Similarly, 
the typhoons follow the Kuro Siwo. Extra-tropical cyclones of 
the United States are attracted by water bodies in the fall and 
early winter and repelled in early spring when the water is 
colder than the land. In like manner, the European storm tracks 
follow the water bodies in fall and winter especially when the 
land is colder or the water warmer than usual. The tracks and 
intensities of the storms in the eastern Atlantic from February 
to April, 1916, reflect the eifect of the unusually warm water 
which passed through the Straits of Florida in January. 

Where water temperature departures of the same sign extend 
over wide areas they tend to exert a considerable effect on the 
general pressure distribution. J. Petersen has shown how the 
location of the Iceland low oscillates back and forth with the self- 
induced changes in water temperature in the northern North 
Atlantic.^ It is well known that the highest pressure in the 
Horse latitude high pressure belts is to be found where the air 
in these latitudes is coldest: near the eastern margins of the 
oceans, where both air and water moving equator-ward have the 
lowest temperature for the latitude. During the past dry months 
water temperatures below normal off the California coast may 
have been responsible to some extent for the anticyclonic condi- 
tions which prevented so effectively the normal southward ex- 
tension of cyclone tracks. Certainly it is true that a knowledge 
of the water temperature distribution would be a help in any 
attempt at forecasting the ocean tracks of cyclones, or general 
pressure conditions to be expected for any month. 

Ocean surface temperatures change but slowly as the water 
is driven before the wind ; thus temperature departures from 
the normal for a region may change, and change suddenly, with 
a shift of the wind. To use water temperature distribution for 

4 Hurricanes of the West Indies. W. B. Bull., X, 1913, 28 pp., 25 pis. 

" Unperiodische Temperatureschwankungen im Golf Strom und deren 
Beziehung zu der Luftdruckverteilung. Ann. d. Hydrographie und Mariti- 
men Meteorologie, Aug., 1910, pp. 397-417, pis. 35 and 36. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 439 

weather forecasts it will be necessary to predict from an existing 
condition the probable distribution of North Atlantic surface 
water temperature a few months later. These temperatures can 
be forecasted in a general way, at least, from the average move- 
ments of ocean currents; and from the effects of the expected 
local winds the water temperature distribution as affected by 
the general movements of ocean currents apparently may be pre- 
dicted many months in advance. 

Temperature changes occurring in the Gulf Stream in the 
Straits of Florida may be taken as an example of how water 
temperature departures originate. The temperature departures 
of the Canary and Benguela currents nine or more months be- 
fore a certain mass of water passes through the Straits of Florida 
may be taken as the foundations of the resulting temperature 
departures, since the trade winds starting with these waters drive 
them into the Equatorial Current and so, ultimately, into the 
Gulf Stream. 

An increase in the strength of the trade winds causes a con- 
centration of warm surface water followed necessarily by a flow 
of cooler water which has welled up from below or has been 
transported more rapidly than usual from extra-tropical lati- 
tudes. From tables of the years 1902-1907 inclusive, published 
by Hepworth, I found that following a month in which the north- 
east trades in the extreme eastern Atlantic was 1.5 miles an hour 
or more above normal, the fourth, fifth, and sixth months later 
were marked by temperatures normal, or above, in the Straits 
of Florida in 76 per cent of the instances, while only 46 per cent 
of all the months had temperatures normal or above.'' On the 
other hand, the eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh months after 
the abnormally windy month the temperatures reported in the 
Straits of Florida were below normal in 84 per cent of the cases, 
while only 54 per cent of all the months had temperatures below 
normal. With the southeast trades the same relations hold, but 
about three months later. 

Since direct sunlight is the main source of warmth for ocean 
waters, the variations in its strength are reflected many months 
later in the temperatures of the Gulf Stream. A curve made 



6 Data from M. C. W. Hepworth, The Trade Winds of the Atlantic 
Ocean. Brit. Met. Office, No. 203, 1910. 



440 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

up of annual means by twelve-month periods of the temperature 
departures of the Gulf Stream in the Straits of Florida 1903-1909, 
inclusive, is strikingly similar to Arctowski's curve for Arequipa 
temperatures 1902-1908, which may be taken as a rough measure 
of the strength of insolation/ The delay amounting to 13-15 
months in the points of the Gulf Stream curve which correspond 
to those of the Arequipa curve may be accounted for in part by 
the slowness with which water responds to changes in sunlight, 
and in part by the time required for the wind to collect the 
surface water from the tropical Atlantic. 

The action of local winds, pressures, and tidal currents may 
at times seem to obliterate the effects of all these more substantial 
controlling elements. 

"With the exception of the lack of a contribution from the 
southeast trade winds, these elements which control the temper- 
atures of the Gulf Stream probably control coincidently the 
temperatures of the Japan Current. 

The surface waters of the North Atlantic and North Pacific 
move eastward irregularly under the action of the winds. It 
seems evident that the water actually traverses the ocean, for 
in the majority of cases appreciable temperature departures in 
the Antilles Current, the Gulf Stream, and the Labrador Current 
may be found in European waters five or six months later in 
the case of the Antilles Current, and eight to eleven months 
later in the cases of the Gulf Stream and Labrador Current. 
This actual movement of temperature departures over a distance 
of several thousand miles is doubted by such authorities as 
Helland-Hansen and Nansen,^ so I shall give further details. 

From the monthly meteorological charts of the British Meteor- 
ological Office the average water temperature departures from 
January, 1902, to February, 1910, as given by two-degree squares, 
were averaged for each of nine large quadrangles representing 
six western Atlantic regions and three eastern ones. Marked 
temperature departures in the Antilles current (square 20-28° 

7 H. Arctowski, The ' ' solar constant ' ' and the variations of atmospheric 
temperature at Arequipa. Bull. Am. Geogr. Soc, Aug., 1912, pp. 598-606. 

8 Temperatur-sehwankungen des Nordatlantischen Ozeans und in der 
Atmosphare. Einleitende Studien iiber die Ursachen der Klimatologischen 
Sehwankungen. Von Bjom Helland-Hansen und Fridtjof Nansen, mit 48 
Tafeln und 97 Figuren im Text. Kristiania, 1917, 341 pp. (Videnslcaps- 
selsJcapets Skrifter, I, Mat. Naturv. Klasse, 1916, No. 9). 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 441 

N., 64-74° W.) should presage those of the Gulf Stream in so far 
as the latter depends on the North Equatorial Current ; and such 
is the ease, the departures on the Straits of Florida being three 
months later than those in the region north of Haiti, In the 
quadrangle west of Brittany (44-50° N., 4-20° W.) two of the 
three +1° F. departures of the Antilles Current were followed 
in five months by departures exceeding -\^1° F. ; while of the five 
marked minus departures, three were followed by similar ones 
west of Brittany six months later. In the region west of Brit- 
tany the probable expectation, if there were no connection, would 
be only 15 per cent for plus departures exceeding 1° F., and 
36 per cent for the minus departures of the same degree. Com- 
paring the Gulf Stream in the Straits of Florida with the tem- 
perature departures west of Brittany and west of Ireland nine 
months later, 1906-1909, there was correspondence in 50 per cent 
of the cases, while the probable expectation was only 23 per cent. 
Thus, individually, the Antilles Current or the Gulf Stream is 
reflected by the later temperatures in west European waters to 
a degree more than double what would probably occur by chance. 

As might be expected, the temperatures southeast of Nan- 
tucket (34-40° N., 60-70° W.), since they include some of the 
Antilles Current and Gulf Stream after they have come to- 
gether, should give fair indications of similar conditions on the 
European side seven or eight months later : plus departures south- 
east of Nantucket and west of Brittany eight months later 57 
per cent (vs. 20 per cent by chance) ; with west of Ireland 
(50-56° N., 10-20° W.) seven and nine months later 67 per cent 
(vs. 20 per cent). Minus departures southeast of Nantucket 
tend to be followed by minus departures of the same degree or 
more (1° F.) west of Brittany seven months later 56 per cent 
of the time (vs. 38 per cent). 

The Labrador current seems to be more effective with its minus 
than with its plus departures: probably because only when the 
current is stronger, and so, colder than usual, will it greatly 
affect the Gulf Stream drift. Comparing its minus temperature 
departures with those west of Ireland nine months later, there 
is a correspondence of 80 per cent (vs. 55 per cent by chance). 

These figures represent the average for any month in the 
year, yet it is evident from a consideration of the four years 



442 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

1906-1909 that the temperatures west of Brittany correspond to 
those of the other side of the ocean more closely in some months 
than in others. Thus considering the trends of the temperature 
departures from one month to the next, the Antilles current in 
the period from May to November changed from month to month 
seveneen times the same way and only five times the opposite 
way to the changes in the temperature departures west of Brit- 
tany five months later. From November to May, on the other 
hand, the corresponding figures were twelve and ten. The Gulf 
Stream from March to July compared with the region west of 
Brittany nine months later showed ten trends in the same direc- 
tion and four in the opposite, while from July to March the cor- 
responding figures are fourteen and thirteen. The Labrador 
current from June to August compared with the region west of 
Brittany ten months later showed trends in the same direction 
six times and in the opposite twice ; while for the rest of the year 
the figures are twenty-two and twenty-four, respectively. 

Obviously, such connections cannot be used in any but a 
general way. It is evident that water can keep a semblance of 
its temperature character over a trip of 4000 miles and during 
a period of nine months. "What this really means is that if the 
water starts, say, 2° C. (a large departure) above normal from 
the Straits of Florida, when that water gets across to the other 
side, after having mixed with other waters, the temperature of 
the mixture will be appreciably higher than if one of its great 
elements had not been so warm. Actually, the mixture might 
have a minus departure in consequence of including an unusual 
amount of melted ice from the Labrador current. In practice, 
when we may be trying to make long-range seasonal forecasts we 
will not let the water go from one side and then await its arrival 
at the other ; we will follow it across from month to month, and 
revise early tentative forecasts as the temperature departures 
change unexpectedly. All this discussion of the actual move- 
ment of temperature departures across the oceans brings us to 
the conclusion that we have rather stable basal material for 
computing the actual temperatures which will occur under the 
varying directions of the winds. 

"Winds south of the normal direction in the Atlantic tend to 
produce plus departures of temperature, thereby augmenting 



CONFEBENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL BELATIONS 443 

already existing plus departures, or eliminating minus ones: 
winds from north of the normal direction have the opposite effect. 
Helland-Hansen and Nansen® have proved that this is true not 
only qualitatively but also quantitatively: the greater the de- 
parture from the normal wind direction the greater will be the 
temperature departure. The action in atmospheric temperatures 
is immediate, but in ocean temperatures it is a question of a week 
with intense winds or of a month or more with moderate ones 
for any appreciable effect to be noticeable. 

If we are to make any long-range seasonal weather forecasts, 
up-to-date maps of water temperatures and pressures by ten- or 
thirty-day periods are necessary. The division of marine meteor- 
ology of the Weather Bureau is at my request now bringing the 
daily weather maps of the North Atlantic as nearly up to date 
as the receipts of meteorological logs will allow ; and on account 
of the enthusiasm of Mr. F. G. Tingley the daily maps of the 
Pacific are not far behind. Existing wind-direction departures 
will indicate coming water temperature departures. From such 
forecasted water temperature distributions the probable pres- 
sure rearrangements over the oceans may be surmised, and from 
the forecasted pressure distribution the Avind directions, and 
thus the temperatures and rainfall, can be forecasted. If we 
find that it would not be unwise, we could apply these fore- 
casted wind directions to the construction of a water temperature 
map for another month in advance, and begin another, though 
very uncertain, cycle. 

The first steps for an investigation of the North Pacific Ocean, 
in particular, would be to procure plenty of current, atmospheric 
pressure, and temperature data. The area is so vast that if we 
are to have a satisfactory picture of the weather and water con- 
ditions of the Pacific Ocean all ships and all lighthouses oper- 
ating in this region should be equipped to take water temper- 
ature and atmospheric pressure observations. These observations 
should be made available within a month of the time they are 
taken, if possible, at some international establishment where they 
can be used immediately for the construction of maps. At this 
bureau there could be a corps constantly engaged in mapping 
the data, getting averages for ten-day and thirty-day maps, and 

9 Ibid. 



444 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY 

making the computations necessary for the construction of fore- 
cast maps. In connection with such an internationally supported 
bureau there would be room for two or more research men. 

On the research side, a profitable beginning has been made 
by T. Okada^° and others in their investigations of weather cor- 
relations in the Pacific region. In closing, I wish to call attention 
to the desirability of applying to the Pacific certain correlations 
which have been worked out for the Atlantic Ocean. P. H. Galle is 
now making winter temperature forecasts for central and western 
Europe on the basis of the strength of the trade winds during 
the preceding May to October.^^ February to March and March 
to April temperatures for the same region are indicated fairly 
well by the pressure gradient between Copenhagen and Styk- 
kisholm during the preceding September to January, inclusive, 
or by the December water or air temperatures on the middle 
Norwegian coast.^^ The summer temperatures in all the Baltic 
region are indicated by the winter temperatures of the water 
about Iceland, and the general character of the April to Sep- 
tember rainfall at Berlin, at least, is indicated by the Thorshavn 
rainfall of the preceding January to Mareh.^^ 

Expressed in terms of the Pacific region, these correlations 
would be as follows: The departures of the strength of the 
trade wind from the normal at Hawaii during the period May 
to October (perhaps earlier) may indicate a departure of the 
same sign in British Columbia during the months December to 
February following. The pressure gradient between Seattle and 
Dutch Harbor September to January inclusive, or the December 
air or water temperatures on the coast of southern Alaska when 
compared with the corresponding values of the year before may 
give a direct indication of the coming February to March and 
March to April temperatures relative to those of the same periods 
of the year before, whifch will probably have a chance of veri- 



10 Jmtr. Meteorological Sac. of Japan, Dec, 1915, May and June, 1917. 

11 On the relation between the summer changes of the North Atlantic 
Trade Winds and winter temperature in Europe. Proe. Amsterdam Boy. 
Acad, of Sci., vol. 18, 1916, pp. 1435-1448. 

12 W. Meinardus, Ueber einige meteorologische Beziehungen zwischen 
dem Nordatlantischen Ozean und Europa im Winterhalbjahr. Met. Zeits., 
1898, pp. 85-104. 

13 H. H. Hildebrandsson, Quelques recherehes sur les centers d 'action de 
1 'atmosphere. V (last). Kungl. Svenska. VetensJcapsaJcad. Handl., Bd. 51, 
No. 8, 1914, 16 pp. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 445 

fieation greater than 80 per cent in the region west of the con- 
tinental divide and north of the forty-second parallel. Finally, 
the winter water temperatures at Dutch Harbor and the January 
to March rainfall on the south Alaskan coast may give for the 
following summer a direct indication of the temperature and 
rainfall, respectively, for British Columbia and Washington. 

These are necessarily rather generalized weather indications; 
and in themselves may not be of much use. They are, however, 
convenient as starting points for the many years of investigation 
which lie ahead of us to determine what the meteorological con- 
ditions of the North Pacific are and how they may be used for 
making seasonal forecasts for the bordering lands, and perhaps 
for the whole of North America. 



446 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 



THE TIDES AND CURRENTS IN RELATION TO WATER 

TRANSPORTATION AND THE COAL, LUMBER, AND 

FISHING INDUSTRIES 

Dr. W. Bell Dawson 

The chairman : Dr. Dawson, Department of the Naval Ser- 
vice, Ottawa, Canada, has sent a communication which will be 
presented by Dr. McEwen. 

Tides. Tide tables for the principal stations or ports of 
reference in British Columbia are based on continuous obser- 
vations during a period of six to nine years, obtained with regis- 
tering tide gauges. Owing to the complex nature of the tides, 
four principal stations are maintained, as well as two tidal sta- 
tions in cities for which tide tables are required but which are 
unsuitable as ports of reference. 

The limits of the various regions that can be referred to these 
principal stations are determined by observations at secondary 
stations, maintained for a few months at selected localities. These 
observations afford "Tidal Differences" for time, and a "Ratio" 
for height ; thus giving tidal data for all the harbors of the coast.^ 

In addition to their value to general navigation, the tide 
tables are of service to fishermen who supply the various can- 
neries, as the catch often depends on taking advantage of the tide. 

Currents. In the various narrows and passes the current is 
usually so violent during the rise and fall of the tide that navi- 
gation is only possible at slack water, when the tide is turning. 
The coal and lumber industries depend upon water transporta- 
tion by means of powerful tugs, and in toAving coal barges and 
rafts there are passes where it is essential to wait for slack water 
before going through them, to avoid wreckage. By knowing 
when it occurs they can save time and fuel by arriving at a pass 
at the right moment. Navigation in general is often dependent 



1 See explanations in the ' ' Tide Tables for the Pacific Coast of Canada, ' ' 
pp. 4 to 7, and the Tidal Data there given. 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL BEL AT IONS 447 

on slack water also, especially in Seymour Narrows, which is 
on the route used by the steamers from Puget Sound ports to 
Alaska. 

Tables of slack water are calculated and published by this 
survey for Seymour Narrows and three other passes.^ 

Relation of the Turn of the Current to the Time of the Tide. 
This relation has been exhaustively investigated by the Tidal 
Survey on the Pacific and eastern coasts of Canada, which have 
thrown light on each other. It is essential to establish a re- 
lation of this character, in order to obtain a basis for the calcu- 
lation of slack water. In a special paper on this subject all 
possible types of estuaries, inlets, straits, and passes are classified, 
and the methods are explained by which the relation between 
the time of the tide and the turn of the current can be reduced 
to law. The Canadian straits and narrows referred to are merely 
given as examples under classified headings. The principles ar- 
rived at are applicable to the world generally, and more especially 
to the Pacific Ocean. 

A few leading principles brought to light by these researches 
may be mentioned concisely: 

1. The turn of the current may be out of accord with the 
local tide ; but it may correspond with the tide of the open ocean, 
beyond the local channels. 

2. To obtain a difference between the turn of the current and 
the tide, which is practically constant, it may be necessary to 
distinguish the two slack waters and to deal with these separ- 
ately, by referring high-water slack and low-water slack to two 
different tide stations in opposite directions. 

3. The time interval between slack water and the tide often 
follows the moon 's declination ; as it may show a strongly marked 
alternation when the moon is in high declination, in accord with 
its upper and lower transits. The alternation in value on suc- 
cessive tides may be a whole hour in amount. This character- 
istic is a very noteworthy one on the Pacific Coast, 

4. The variations in the time interval between slack water 
and the tide are usually concordant in similarly situated passes ; 
and consequently the difference in the time of slack water, be- 
tween corresponding passes, may prove to be practically constant. 



2 See "Pacific Tide Tables," pp. 43 to 56. 



448 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

This last principle has greatly simplified the preparation of 
tide tables by reducing the number of primary passes for which 
slack water tables have to be calculated from the time of the 
tide. In southern British Columbia five passes with important 
traffic can thus be correctly referred to the primary passes by 
constant differences, as well as six or eight of the northern passes, 
in which a knowledge of the time of slack water is essential to 
the lumber industry.^ 



3 See tables of differences between passes in "Pacific Tide Tables," 
pp. 59, 60, and explanations on p. 43. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 449 



WHY WE HAVE A DRY SEASON AND A WET SEASON 
ON THE PACIFIC COAST 

Dr. Andrew H. Palmer 
Observer, U. S. Weather Bureau, San Francisco, California 

The CHAIRMAN: The next paper, which is from Dr. A. H. 
Palmer, observer, U. S. Weather Bureau, San Francisco, will be 
read by Professor Holway. 

Eastern visitors who attended the recent Exposition were 
favorably impressed with California climate. As a result many 
and various questions concerning our weather and climate have 
been submitted to the newspapers and to the San Francisco office 
of the U. S. Weather Bureau. The relatively cool air proved a 
great relief to those who arrived during the midsummer months. 
The cause of the coolness was apparent to all who observed that 
the prevailing winds were from off the ocean, which every one 
knows is relatively cold in summer and relatively warm in winter. 
But the cause of the almost complete absence of rainfall during 
the summer half-year was not so easily understood. 

Based upon a record which covers sixty-five years, San Fran- 
cisco may be said to receive an average annual rainfall of 22.50 
inches, of which 91 per cent falls during the wet season, No- 
vember to April, inclusive, and the remaining 9 per cent during 
the dry season. May to October, inclusive. The same distribution 
holds true for the state as a whole; during an average year 
California receives about 90 per cent of its rainfall of 26.78 
inches during the six wet months, and only 10 per cent during 
the six dry months. It is not uncommon for more than two 
hundred and fifty cooperative stations of the Weather Bureau 
in California to report absolutely no rainfall during one of the 
midsummer months. Or stated in another way, summer sun- 
shine in California is almost uninterrupted by cloud, except 
along the immediate coast, where fog is a frequent accompani- 
ment of the ocean winds. It occasionally happens that a station 



450 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

will receive 100 per cent of its possible sunshine during one of 
these months, as was the case on Mount Tamalpais last June. 
As one goes northward along the coast from San Francisco the 
division of the year into a wet and a dry season is less marked, 
Eureka, for example, receiving but 78 per cent of its total annual 
rainfall during the rainy half-year. The cause for this difference 
between conditions at San Francisco and at Eureka will be made 
apparent in the following discussion of the cause of the division 
of the year into a wet season and a dry season. 

It is quite apparent that the north and south migration of 
the sun causes the warm weather of summer and the cold weather 
of winter. It causes more than this, however. It also affects 
profoundly the distribution of barometric pressure and the re- 
sulting winds and paths of storms. By barometric pressure is 
meant simply the weight with which the atmosphere presses 
down upon the earth's surface. The whole planetary distribu- 
tion of barometric pressure migrates northward and southward 
with the sun. Since these belts of high and low pressure de- 
termine the prevailing winds and the usual paths of storms 
these, too, migrate with the sun. In the last analysis, all weather 
changes are influenced by the heat received from the sun. Stated 
in terms of cause and effect : the heat received in sunshine pro- 
duces great planetary belts of high and low barometric pressure, 
the latter in turn determining the prevailing winds, which in 
turn affect the paths of the storms v/hich bring the rains. 

The Pacific Coast of the United States is alternately under 
the influence of a great belt of high pressure in summer and 
another great belt of low pressure in winter. These belts, while 
extending around the earth, are best developed over the North 
Pacific Ocean. The extensive high pressure area of summer, 
covering most of the Pacific, is characterized by clear skies, de- 
scending air, light variable winds near the surface of the earth, 
and almost complete stagnation of the upper atmosphere with 
an almost entire absence of rainfaU. The whole western coast 
of the United States then enjoys its rainless period, since storms 
are deflected too far north to influence it, and storms never form 
within such a belt of high pressure. In the interior valleys the 
excessive heating at midday may give rise to thunder-storms, 
with accompanying precipitation, but these are local in origin 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 451 

and dissipate before traveling far. When the sun passes south- 
ward in winter this belt of high pressure retreats southward 
with it, and is replaced by an equally extensive area of low 
pressure. The latter appears to have its center just south of the 
Aleutian Islands of western Alaska, and is more or less dormant 
throughout the winter half-year. At frequent intervals, some- 
times two or three times in a single week, small areas of low 
pressure are detached from this subpermanent belt, and these, 
carried along by the prevailing westerly winds of these latitudes, 
move eastward or southeastward across the North American con- 
tinent. Marked "Low" on the daily weather map, such an area 
is termed a cyclone by the meteorologist, but by the general public 
called storm, depression, or disturbance. The cyclone (very dif- 
ferent in nature from a tornado) is simply a moving area of 
low barometric pressure, with winds blowing counter-clockwise 
and spirally inward toward its center, or point of lowest pressure. 
Cyclones vary greatly in size, some being as large as the whole 
Mississippi Valley, while others are no larger than New England. 
They move at an average rate of three hundred miles a day. 
The wind velocitj^ experienced at any point within the influence 
of a cyclone varies directly as the barometric gradient, that is, 
the rate of change of pressure as measured outward from its 
center. Nearly all the rainfall received on the Pacific Coast 
is brought by these cyclones, and as they pass alternately with 
the "Highs" in endless procession across the northern and cen- 
tral portions of the country they produce the frequent weather 
changes which are so characteristic of these regions. 

In summer cyclones enter North America too far to the north 
to give much rainfall to the Pacific Coast of the United States. 
After entering the continent they occasionally are deflected suffi- 
ciently far southward to give rain in the Mississippi Valley and 
along the Atlantic seaboard. Moreover, thunder-storms fre- 
quently develop in the southern half of such a cyclone, and these, 
together with the excessive precipitation brought by an occasional 
tropical hurricane, give the central and eastern United States 
abundant rainfall while the Pacific Coast is having its dry season. 
Conditions are very different in the winter, however. Then the 
paths taken by the cyclones coming from the Aleutian center of 
action are sufficiently far to the south to give California consid- 



452 VNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

erable rainfall. Weather forecasting for the Pacific Coast, there- 
fore, consists largely in anticipating the approach of these 
cyclones, and in determining their path in advance, the rate of 
movement, and the extent of the accompanying precipitation. 
The problem is made somewhat difficult by the absence of obser- 
vations from points west of the coast. Occasionally a mariner 
far out at sea will send by wireless information which is ex- 
tremely valuable to the forecaster. 

During the winter the most common path pursued by storms 
entering the United States is over the state of Washington, 
though not infrequently the center will be deflected from its 
normal course as far south as California. This explains why 
the north coast has more rainfall than the south coast, taking 
the year as a whole, or taking the dry season alone. Winter has 
a profound effect upon cyclonic storms. It makes them more 
frequent, brings them southward, increases their extent, and 
accelerates their rate of movement. Moreover, the prevailing 
westerly winds are most active then, and the upper air, as indi- 
cated by the movements of the higher clouds, shows an almost 
uninterrupted drift from west to east, often at a tremendous 
rate.* Furthermore, during the winter land is relatively colder 
than water, and therefore it chills the inflowing air. Since cool 
air can carry less water in suspension than warm air, some of 
the water is usually precipitated in the form of rain. Residents 
of California recognize that the rainfall varies greatly from year 
to year, that is, that some wet seasons bring decidedly more rain 
than others. This variation is explained in terms of the fact 
that during unusually wet seasons the Aleutian "Low" advances 
far to the south, a portion overlying the North Pacific coast, and 
storms are deflected unusually far southward. On the other 
hand, during rainy seasons of deficient rainfall this center of 
action retreats so far to the north that most of the storms pass 
inland through western Canada, and little rain falls in this state. 
The character of the season depends, therefore, in large measure 
upon the position assumed by the North Pacific belt of low 
pressure, the source of all our storms. 

* The prevailing westerly -winds should not be confused with the strong 
west winds of midsummer experienced at San Francisco and at other points 
along the coast. These are simply superficial indraughts of air rushing in 
to take the place of the heated air ascending from the hot interior valleys. 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 453 

The periodic shifting of these planetary belts of barometric 
pressure is ultimately dependent upon solar heat radiation as 
received in sunshine. The distribution of the belts depends partly 
upon the spherical nature of the earth and partly upon the dif- 
ference in the specific heats of land and water. Land areas 
absorb and radiate solar heat readily, while the ocean water is 
more conservative. The continents are, therefore, relatively warm 
in summer and relatively cold in winter, California has a marine 
rather than a continental type of rainfall, in that it has a winter 
maximum and a summer minimum. Generally speaking, its cli- 
mate is subtropical, without great extremes of temperature. Its 
climate, one of the most favored in the whole world, is too well 
known and appreciated to require an encomium here. 



454 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 

FOUETH SESSION 

Chairman, Samuel Jackson Holmes, B.S., M.S., Ph.D. 
Professor of Zoology, University of California 



INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS OF CERTAIN BIOLOGICAL 
PROBLEMS OF THE NORTH PACIFIC 

David Starr Jordan 

Chancellor, Leland Stanford Junior University 

The CHAIRMAN: Ladies and Gentlemen: One of the note- 
worthy features of our Semicentenary celebration is the discus- 
sion that is being devoted to the scientific problems of an inter- 
national kind that confront the nations which border upon the 
North Pacific Ocean. Yesterday there was a conference on the 
meteorological problems of the North Pacific. This afternoon 
there is to be another conference devoted to the biological prob- 
lems of the North Pacific. The address will be delivered by 
Dr. David Starr Jordan of Stanford University. 

Doctor Jordan : Mr. Chairman, Students of the University, 
Ladies and Gentlemen : I have been quite surprised to see how 
many people would come out to hear my first speech on a subject 
upon which I have never spoken before, and I am somewhat 
doubtful as to whether I can cover all I ought to say in the time 
that I am allowed, but I will do the best I can. 

The international relations of the biological problems of the 
North Pacific should be divided into two topics. In the first 
place, everything that is true is of interest to all scholars ; each 
one taking as much of it as he has time for. The North Pacific 
swarms with intellectual problems. We know something of ani- 
mals on the shore, a great deal more we want to know ; we know 
something of plants, something of zoology, something of ocean 
tides and currents ; something about the highly complicated ocean- 



CONFERENCE ON INTEENATIONAL RELATIONS 455 

ographj^ of the North Pacific ; and we know a great deal of the 
animals of the sea, and we would like to know a good deal more. 
I have myself taken a pretty active part in the hunt for fish. 
I like to go fishing. I have fished around the Bogoslef Islands, 
in Alaska, where the water is a depth of a little over a mile, 
when the surface of the sea was not smooth, and when it was an 
open question how long one could stand and pick up the things 
that had come to greet you from the depth of a mile. 

I want to pick out a few of the scientific interests which 
center in the North Pacific. Everything we know belongs to 
the great republic of science, and scientific men everywhere, even 
in the belligerent countries, are interested in our ordered knowl- 
edge. Thus we have the practical relations. What has all this 
to do with us, and particularly what has it to do with the welfare 
of each of the different nations? The United States, Canada, 
Mexico to some extent, Japan, Russia, China, all those nations 
border on the North Pacific, and all have interests practical as 
well as scientific. So I must split up my subject into different 
topics. 

The Fur Seal (Otoes). Perhaps the one interest that is 
financially greatest, as well as biologically greatest, is one which 
concerns luxury, the fur seal. The fur seal at home is an animal 
very much like our brown sea lion Zalophus, on this coast. It 
is closely related, having very much the same habits; it has a 
different voice and a finer grade of fur, with a much lower grade 
of intelligence. The sea lion has hair and no under-fur, whereas 
the seal has a soft dense growth of down under the long hair 
that keeps it warm. To make a commercial sealskin, the long 
hairs are pulled out and the soft down colored black. 

In the North Pacific there are three different species of seals 
much alike. The one on the American side, Otoes alascanus, has 
the better fur; it is a larger animal with a shorter neck than 
the one on the Russian side, Otoes ursinus. We regard the two 
as distinct species ; the Russian animal has a longer neck and is 
darker in color; it is smaller and the fur is not so good. Over 
in Japan they have a third species, Otoes curilensis, which is 
smaller than either of the two, and the fur not so good, the under 
down being dull yellow instead of white as in the other two 
species. 



456 VNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENAEY 

The habits of the fur seal are in brief as follows: In the 
spring time when the ice goes away from the seal islands, which 
would be early in June, the males, which they call bulls, arrive. 
Sikateh is the Kussian name. These have spent the winter in 
the Gulf of Alaska. They do not like to go more than a thousand 
miles away from home, for fear that when they get back some- 
body will be occupying their place, and then they would have 
to fight for it. Each male tries to hold a piece of ground about 
a rod square. If any other male covets that stand, he steps up 
on it and looks around. The one in possession looks at him, the 
two then blow out their misty breath, with a musky odor, then 
strike each other on the head and neck with their canine teeth. 
Each one is as strong as a grizzly bear, and weighs five hundred 
pounds. They put up a great fight, better than any dog fight. 
When one feels himself beaten, he looks away and pretends not 
to notice the victor any more. If not too much battered, he 
selects another place farther from the sea. He does not care 
for another fight. If he is hurt too badly, he slinks off with the 
bachelors, those from five to seven years old or over ten, too 
young or too old to be in society. The big male will not go out- 
side his realm to fight or to chase anybody. That makes it safe 
for a man to come near because you know they will not go for 
you any farther than a distance across this rostrum ; but if he 
caught a man, he would shake him as a dog shakes a rat. 

The fur seal is not a seal, and the sea lion is not a seal. 
Neither of them are at all closely related to the true seal, "hair 
seal," or harbor seal, whose skins were used to cover trunks; 
the true seals are related to the otter ; whereas the fur seal may 
be described as an aquatic bear. It shuffles along, plantigrade, 
like the bear, and can get over the ground as rapidly and as 
gracefully as a cow. The fur seal breeds on land. The hair 
seals cannot run on land. They have no flippers, but their hind 
legs will not turn forward. In the north they bear their young 
on the ice. The fur seal bears its young always on land on 
rocky headlands, called rookeries, the boundaries of which are 
well established. 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 457 

The great rookeries on St. Paul Island are Vostoehni, Morjovi, 
Tolstoi, Zapadni, Polavina, Lukanin, Kitovi, Gorbatsch, and the 
Keef. Those on St. George are called Starava Atil, Zapadni, 
North and East. The largest single rookery in the world is on 
the Russian island of Bering, called Severnoye or North. The 
small rookery is Poludionnoye or South. On Medni or Copper 
Island are Palata and Zapalata. 

The rookery is the fur seal settlement. The male animals are 
commonly caUed bulls, the females cows. The males are also 
ealled ''Beach Masters" and the females "Matka" or Mother, 
and the young "Kotik" or Pup. The rookeries of the Pribilof 
Islands are lava rocks ; the islands are made of lava. The females 
begin to come back in late June or early July. The females go 
in the winter time as far south as San Diego, keeping well out 
at sea, and feeding on fish. The females do not seem to be afraid 
that they cannot find their way back, traveling all the way from 
San Francisco and San Diego and going through the open sea 
without compass and through the straits, all reaching the islands 
a short time before their young are born. There is no record of 
their landing elsewhere or of young born at sea, and all from 
the middle of June to July. If any were born at sea, they would 
be drowned. Whatever distance they may be away, they always 
get back just in time for the young to be born on the island. 
Those are matters of instinct, not at all of intelligence. 

It would seem that the fur seal has about as little intellect 
as any beast of its size. By intelligence we mean power of choos- 
ing the line of action amid varied impulses. The fur seal has 
his activities marked out for him. There is no second choice. 
The instinct of geography is forced on the fur seal. Those who 
do not come back leave no descendants. After the males, the 
females come and cluster around the males. They seem to prefer 
those males which are near the water. These are generally the 
strongest ones. You will find in each family anywhere from 
about a hundred females down to one or often none. When by 
bad luck any one of the males has no female in his harem, then 
he proceeds to another harem, seizes one by the back of the neck 
and throws her over his shoulder. The males weigh about five 
hundred pounds and the females something about one-fifth as 
much. The males sometimes tear the skin of the females in 



458 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

tossing them over into their harems. A female who is caught 
looks modest and perfectly content, but by and by she will slip 
back to where she came from when the male is not looking. When 
a female gets hungry and wants to go to sea and the male will 
not let her go, she bites him in the neck until he groans in weari- 
ness ; afterward when the male is tired or falls asleep the female 
slips down into the water and goes away to feed. Usually she 
goes about two hundred miles away where the sea smelt and 
squid are plenty. The male never goes away until the breeding 
season is over. They stay at their post until they are lean and 
very hungry and then they go off, in turn, to feed. As soon as 
the big males go, the young bachelors break in. They have 
watched for weeks on the rocks above. But they run away when 
the big male comes back. The bachelors have to wait until they 
are about seven years old before they can break in. The young 
of the first year come back very late. You hardly see any of 
the yearling males until the latter part of August. The two- 
year-olds come back earlier, and the three-year-olds still earlier. 
These wander in large groups, sleeping on the sand, keeping 
away from the rookeries, while those of five or six years stand 
guard on the rocks behind the families, waiting for their chance 
to break in. 

Now the sad feature of fur seal life comes in killing. The 
skins of the two- or three-year-old male and the female at any 
age are very valuable, now worth about fifty dollars apiece. The 
greater part of the males are superfluous, as the sexes are equal 
in number and the harems average about fifty each. Many of 
them wait until they are nine years old before they break into 
society and some never break in. You will find on the islands 
many old bachelor clubs, whose members retire to the shining 
sands of Zoltoi to meditate on vanished sins. You will see some 
there with torn necks and discouraged dispositions. 

The young males separate themselves from the herd. Some- 
times when a young male ventures to come in the old males set 
up a roar, which chills his young heart. The male enjoys roar- 
ing ; his voice is that of a rather hoarse lion. Every little while 
he thinks it is time to roar some more, and then he starts in again. 
The female does not roar, but bleats like a sheep. The pups bleat 
like lambs, and they are very fond of play. The young males 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 459 

which haul themselves out on the flat sands can be driven any- 
where right over the grass like sheep, and in the warm days of 
summer they soon get hot and tired. Then the Aleuts employed 
for that purpose go in with clubs and kill those they choose to 
take, normally those which are three years old. The natives keep 
the flesh to eat. It is red and tender, but quite dry. The skins 
are sent to London to be prepared and dyed, the British having 
the secret of this manipulation. 

If it were not for the killing of these superfluous males, the 
fur seals, which give economic value to the herd, would have been 
exterminated long ago. As you may know, this matter has been 
the subject of vigorous international litigation and the subject 
of several joint high commissions, in three of which I took part. 
It was finally the subject of the important treaty in 1910 between 
Japan, Canada, Russia, and the United States, whereby it was 
provided these herds should be finally protected from killing at 
sea, only males on land to be taken. Most of those killed at sea 
were females, and when one of these dies a pup on shore will 
starve while one unborn also perishes. In 1896 we found about 
twelve thousand starved pups. By ''pelagic sealing," as it was 
called, on the part of Canadian and Japanese vessels, the herd 
had been reduced from about three million to one-fifteenth of 
that number. It was agreed at last that the islands were in a 
way jointly owned, and that Canada should receive fifteen per 
cent of the sales of skins and Japan fifteen per cent from Russia 
and the United States. The treaty applies to the Russian (or 
Commander) Islands as well as to the American (Pribilof) 
Islands. The Russian Islands, Medni, and Bering have about 
half as many animals as the American Islands. At the end of 
the war the Japanese secured from the Russians the little rookery 
on Robben Island near Sakhalin. There are only a few thousand 
there, but if they are protected they will undoubtedly increase 
largely in number. Protection for this animal demands two 
things: one is that none of them should be shot at sea and that 
no female should be killed. When there are so many superfluous 
males (there are just the same number of males and females born, 
and yet the average rookery has fifty females to one male) and 
these males are fighting and raiding the harems it is a great 
advantage to have them reduced in number. It is just the same 



460 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

as with a herd of cattle. It would be folly to raise all the bull 
seals, for the fighting of the males destroys numbers of new- 
born pups. When the pups are three weeks old they are as round 
as a football and cannot easily be hurt. 

There is an interesting story written by Rudyard Kipling 
on the "white seal." Many of you have read it. I saw it first 
when on the island of St. Paul of the Pribilofs. I was on a 
rock at the rookery called Lukanin, when a large bull seal came 
up behind me and began to roar. I climbed off the rock in a 
hurry and he followed after me. I sprained my ankle and he 
sprained his voice. Anyway, I went back to the house and had 
to remain idle for two or three days. And then for the first time 
I read Kipling's story. I found not one single particle of local 
color of any kind ; not a single word of the story was true to fact. 
I was myself acquainted with one "white seal," a big albino 
male, whose movements I had watched as he tried to break into 
society. It had nothing in common with Kipling's fancy. Then 
I wrote for myself the story of the fur seal as it is. I wrote it 
with the inspiration of those places around me. Atagh is the 
Aleut name for Sikatchs. I located Atagh and his family on 
the near-by rookery of Tolstoi. If you want an animal story 
that is absolutely true from beginning to end, read my "Story 
of Natka. " It is vouched for in every particular by photographs. 
Mr. Kipling is clever with the pen and I am just a mere natur- 
alist, and put down what I see ; but ' ' truth is mighty and will 
prevail" if you give it time enough. 

"When we took possession of Alaska there were along the coast 
a great many sea otters. The sea otter is an animal similar to a 
mink but larger and with longer fur. It is exceedingly valuable. 
The last sea otter I have seen was offered to me on Bering Island 
for twelve hundred dollars. But the average price was higher. 
The grandees of Russia used to wear sea otter overcoats. The 
sea otter lives in the bays of the north, swimming for great dis- 
tances. It has been found as far south as San Diego, but the 
great bulk of them belonged in Alaska. The natives used to 
spear them. Afterward the Americans and Canadians found 
that they could shoot them, and our Government let them do it 
until the sea otter has almost gone. Along the coast of Alaska 
in 1897 I found that the natives, who in many villages used to 



CONFEBENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 461 

live from catching otter, were starving. When I came back I 
drew up an official order that no otter could be killed in Alaska 
except by spears. This was signed by the Secretary of the Treas- 
ury, Hon. Lyman P. Gage. I never heard a word of what fol- 
lowed from this order, whether or not it helped to save either 
the sea otter or the natives dependent on it. Whatever is done 
in Alaska, scarcely a word ever comes back to the United States. 
I do not know today whether the otter has been exterminated, 
nor do I know how the Aleut otter hunters are faring. The sea 
otter should have been protected from the first, and it is a shame 
to allow a valuable animal like that to be destroyed. When we 
took pc^sesison of Alaska our agents knew so little about it that 
the government at Washington did not think the sea otter worthy 
of notice. 

Another Alaskan specialty is the polar bear, the skins of 
which are valued as parlor adornments. 

The whales have been largely thinned out in the North Pacific. 
The Right Whale, the Humpback, the Sulphur Bottom, and some 
smaller ones are found there. I remember one time when I was 
on the cutter "Rush" going through Unimak Strait, a large 
whale got in our way. The "Rush" struck him amidships and 
the captain thought he had hit a rock. It did not hurt the ship, 
but it alarmed the captain and made a dent on the whale. That 
is the nearest I ever came to catching one. Whales are valuable 
for their oil, and now we are learning that they may be used as 
a substitute for beef. I have never had a chance to test whale 
meat, but I learn that members of the Faculty Club of California 
have tried and approved. When all our bacon and beef has been 
sent to Europe, then we may feast on whale steak. It may be 
that whale beef can be canned; almost anything can be pre- 
served in tins or glass, and our people must learn that there are 
many things that are good to eat which they have never tried. 
The whale ought to be protected. That is all I will say about him. 

Then we have the fishes, hundreds on hundreds of kinds, and 
one of them with great international importance, the red salmon, 
caUed "Sockeye" and "Blueback." This is the most valuable 
fish in the world. This fish exists in enormous numbers in 
Alaska. It weighs usually seven or eight pounds. Like all 
salmon, the red salmon is anadromous, running up the river to 



462 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENAET 

spawn. This is in the spring or summer. They swim up the 
rivers to the uppermost lake, and through it until they reach the 
small streams at the head. Then the male fish scoops out a 
hollow in the gravel or sand and the female lays her eggs, then 
they go back into the river drifting downward, tail foremost, 
until they all die. Professor Gilbert of Stanford has found out 
a way of telling the age of the salmon by the rings of growth. 
The scales of the salmon are made up of many little concentric 
rings of growth. These are close together in the winter time 
when there is a scarcity of food, and farther apart in the summer 
time when food is plenty. By counting the number of these 
winter sets of rings you can tell the age of the fish. Most of 
the red salmon are four years old when they go up the stream. 
When they enter the river they eat no more ; the blue color 
changes to dull red and in the males the jaws grow out long 
and hooked, and the front teeth are enlarged. The protoplasm 
in the cells wears out, and ultimately after they cast their eggs 
they are practically dead, withering just as a constalk does when 
the seeds ripen. 

The breeding habit of the red salmon is peculiar in one way. 
It enters only streams which have a lake in their course. It 
goes up the river until it comes to a lake. The first lake on the 
Yukon is Lake Labarge, upward of eighteen hundred miles from 
the mouth of the river. At Boca de Quadra, also a noted salmon 
stream, is a little stream about ten feet wide and less than a mile 
long, the outlet of a very beautiful lake. At the head of the lake 
it is fed by very clear springs. These fish go up the river just 
as they go up the Yukon, although they have only about five 
miles to go. Accordingly they make a late start. How do they 
know how far away the lake is? They can go up the Boca de 
Quadra to the spawning grounds as slowly as they please ; it is 
only a day's job. If they go up the Yukon it is an all summer's 
job. How do they know that there is a lake there? How do 
they know that to go up the Yukon they must start very early, 
whereas there is no hurry to go up the Boca de Quadra? They 
never spawn in any stream which does not flow directly into a 
lake. They never enter any tributary that does not head a lake. 
How do they know whether a stream they enter is going to have 
a lake at its end or not before they start? How do they know 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 463 

that the Yukon River runs through Lake Laharge? How do 
they know there is no lake on the Skagway River ? Skagway is 
a fine stream abounding in other fish. I have seen a girl take a 
pin, bend it into a hook, bait it with an angle worm, and drop it 
through a knothole in the sidewalk into the gutter in the town 
of Skagway, catching two Dolly Varden trout. The red salmon 
do not seem to care about the quality of the water. The Chilcoot 
River comes from a glacier and the water is milk-white with 
glacial debris. Yet at the foot of the glacier is a lake, and red 
salmon swarm in it. The Boca de Quadra is fed by a stream 
of fresh water. They do not care whether the water is thick 
with clay or whether it is clear, but they insist on having a lake. 
Red salmon go up the Columbia, but not in great numbers, as 
lakes are few. Near Walla Walla is a place where two streams 
come together under a bridge. Professor Gilbert spent a few 
hours watching the salmon come up. The King salmon or Chin- 
nooks would go up either one of these streams indiscriminately, 
but the red salmon, called locally "bluebacks," turned always 
to the stream with a lake. An experiment was made one time 
by piping the water of a lake across to another stream. The 
red salmon gathered at the foot of the pipe around the lake water. 
They were not able to go up the pipe, but they seemed to know 
that the water was right. I have this on the high authority of 
Mr. J. P. Babcock of the British Columbia Fish Commission, 
formerly of the California Commission. What certainly is true 
is the remarkable instinct which enables these animals to pick 
out the river that has the lake. As far as the lakes are up in 
the Columbia, away up either in Idaho or in the eastern part oi; 
Washington, these fish avoid all the other streams except those 
having lakes. The other species of salmon do not care. 

There are on this coast five different kinds of salmon. The 
red salmon is the one most commonly marketed. It is not so 
good as the King salmon, or Chinnook, which reaches double the 
size. But the flesh of the red salmon is a deeper red and the 
price of all these things is fixed in London. "All red" is the 
favorite color in England ; the British, therefore, like an all-red 
salmon, just as they crave an "all-red" route around the world. 
For this reason the red salmon, or "Sockeye," sells better than 
the other. 



464 VNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

The red salmon stays in the lake the first year. The second 
year they go down to sea. All salmon go down to sea tail first. 
You never saw a salmon heading with the current. The King 
salmon, the principal one of the Columbia River, is one of the 
noblest of fish. Those salmon when they are six years old attain 
a weight of about eighty pounds. These two species are the 
"noble salmon." The other three kinds are inferior. Silver 
salmon, which is a very fine and delicate fish, is canned as 
"Medium Red." The Dog salmon, canned as "Chums," is 
largely salted, especially for the Japanese market. It is mushy 
when canned. Finally, there is the humpback salmon, a cheaper 
fish, sold as "Pink Salmon"; the flesh is "guaranteed not to 
turn red." 

There is a little salmon-like fish in Japan which is called the 
"Ice Fish." It is only two or three inches long and perfectly 
transparent. This fish runs up the river in the spring, lays its 
eggs, and then dies. It is believed that nothing but eggs survive, 
from year to year. They are thus annual fishes, like annual 
plants. This is now canned as "Shiro Uwo," or "White Fish." 
It is good food, very delicate, without bones, and makes a fine 
fish cake. 

The herring is as abundant in the North Pacific as it is in 
the North Atlantic. On our coast the herring has not been used 
much, as it has not yet been made to pay. The reason so many 
good fish are not marketed is that it will not pay to ship them. 
The distances are great and the cost of labor is very high, and 
only those fish which are in fashion pay for the trouble of earing 
for them. 

The codfish is almost as important in the North Pacific as in 
the North Atlantic. Mr. Hoover is now making us hunt up food 
that is not yet wanted in Europe. When he succeeds in creating 
a demand we will find that there are a host of other excellent 
fishes to be marketed. 

On this coast there are now multitudes of shad. They were 
introduced about forty years ago from the Potomac. When I 
was on the Fish Commission in 1880, I had the fortune of 
securing the first shad taken in the Pacific. I sent it from 
Astoria to Washington, where it is still preserved in alcohol. 
We have also brought from the Potomac the striped bass and 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 465 

the two species of catfish, all of which thrive well. There are 
many more species we could bring here, to our great advantage, 
from Japan and from the East. Only river fishes or those that 
spawn in the rivers can be transplanted. Sea fishes get lost in 
the sea and never find each other when the spawning time comes. 
For this reason the several plants of lobsters in the Pacific have 
failed. 

The sardine on this coast was entirely neglected until a few 
years ago, although it exists in great numbers from Monterey 
south. In the Mediterranean only the young sardines are canned, 
and we are accustomed to the idea that the sardine is a little fish. 
The size of the full grown sardine on the coast is a foot or more. 
It is becoming commercially very important. 

The Albacore, too, had long been neglected. Its fine, rich 
flesh is now largely canned, but under the wrong name of tuna. 
The real tuna is one of California's prides, the greatest of game 
fishes, but its flesh is coarse and oily. 

One of the finest food fishes in the world is the Eulachon, 
often wrongly called "Columbia River Smelt," ranging from 
Oregon northward. It is a very delicate fish, but not so good 
when canned. They run up the river by millions in April in 
the north, but when they enter the streams they begin to lose 
their fine quality, as the spawn develops. The flesh then grows 
mealy and the flavor of its rich delicate oil is lost, although it 
remains very digestible. 

The halibut is abundant in the British Columbia waters and 
northward. It is a noble food fish of great size and excellence. 

Then there are some thirty species of flounder, the smaller 
ones called "sanddabs"; and as many more species of rock cod, 
besides a host of fish seldom eaten but which are just as good. 

In order to show the international character of this coast, 
there is one very rare fish which the Japanese call the "Fat 
Priest." Until lately it was known from but a half dozen 
specimens, one from Monterey, the rest from Japan. Lately it 
has come to the market in abundance. It has good flesh and 
reaches a length of five or six feet. The fish dealers call it 
"deep water cod." As it is not a cod and does not come from 
deep water this makes the name appropriate. There are un- 
doubtedly in the banks and rocky places along the coast which 



466 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

have never been examined or explored spots where great numbers 
of these fish can be obtained. 

Another fine fish which has been long neglected is the Skil- 
fish of the north, now called "Sable Fish." 

Lately one of our small sharks, the dog-fish, has been canned 
under the name of ' ' Grayfish. " It is not bad. There is on this 
coast another shark whose fins make the finest of soup. The 
Chinese used to pay a dollar and a-half for the fins of this 
"Soup-fin shark." 

This is one of those lectures that could go on indefinitely, but 
I have reached the end of it. I thank you. 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 467 



MIGRATION OF BIRDS IN ITS INTERNATIONAL 
BEARING 

Joseph Grinnell., Ph.D. 

Associate Professor of Zoology, Director of the California Museum 
of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California 

Of all natural assets bird life is least localized. Birds are in 
large part migratory, and move over large extents of country 
according to regular seasonal schedule. They cross boundary 
lines of all sorts and traverse territories, always with a view to 
their own critical requirements as regards food supply and tem- 
perature. Faunal boundaries rarely coincide with political 
boundaries. 

It would seem unnecessary here to argue the value to any 
community of its native bird life. We have come to recognize 
in wild birds sources of recreation, both physical and mental; 
of aesthetic appreciation; of aid in insect repression; of service 
in reforestation, and spread of useful plants; and finally of 
direct use as food for ourselves. 

The great majority of our water fowl are migratory ; and the 
pursuit, capture, and shipment of these has meant wage-earning 
occupation for some thousands of men in the United States for at 
least a part of each year. In California alone, in the year 1912, 
according to statistics of the State Fish and Game Commission, 
wild ducks were sold on the markets to the value of $250,000; 
about one million ducks in all were shot (presumably all used for 
food) ; and over one and one-half million dollars were expended 
in the pursuit of these on the basis of recreation (maintenance 
of gun clubs, traveling expenses, ammunition, etc.) While the 
total monetary value of birds is not to be figured in terms of 
millions of dollars, as with certain other natural resources, it 
may properly be asserted, I think, that total disregard or waste 
of an entire asset of relatively small quantity is just as poor 
business as disregard or waste of a small part of any large asset, 
I have here tried to convey an idea of the value of bird life in 



468 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

terms of dollars; for dollars seem to constitute the only ready 
measure of value comprehensible to everyone. Some of the value 
of birds already referred to it is of course impossible to express 
in connection with the dollar sign. 

I hardly need to try to demonstrate here my conviction that 
it is possible, without special care, to levy an annual draft upon 
those birds for which we may have use dead. I will only refer to 
the biological principle that rate of reproduction has been estab- 
lished at a point in excess of sufficiency to meet the maximum 
probabilities of casualty. The persistence of the species has been 
assured, at least under the natural conditions obtaining immedi- 
ately heretofore. The interpolation of the human factor would 
seem to have influenced the natural balance, on the whole, in 
favor of increasing bird population. This comes about because 
of the customary destruction by humans of other animals norm- 
ally predatory upon bird life. Of course there are cases where 
cultivation of the land by man, or the removal of forests by him, 
has affected adversely, and inevitably so, the persistence of par- 
ticular birds; as, for instance, the prairie chicken and the pas- 
senger pigeon. But there remain very many valuable species 
which have not been so adversely affected by man's presence and 
some which have even benefited; and these are the ones from 
which we can expect contribution to our needs without attention 
on our part save for regulation of our own rate of draft upon 
them. 

Let it be accepted, then, that bird life does comprise a natural 
asset worth conserving, to the end that it may become a thing 
producing a regular annual income. If many of our important 
species are migratory, how can proper conservation be secured 
without cooperation between the several countries through which 
such birds travel during their annual migration? Here in Cali- 
fornia in the early days of bird and game legislation, the counties 
of the state each formed its own code of laws irrespective of its 
neighbor. No thought was taken toward adjustment or regula- 
tion with a view to conditions throughout the entire state. In 
1861, for example, the shooting season for water fowl and upland 
game birds in Los Angeles and San Bernardino counties opened 
on August 1, whereas in adjoining counties it did not open until 
September 15. The earlier date cut into the nesting season of 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 469 

the birds to the injury of the breeding stock. But adjustments 
have now been made by which judicious treatment is accorded 
to the game birds throughout the state, although this has meant 
the curtailment of shooting altogether in some districts. This is, 
however, strictly in the interests of the state as a whole. 

Is there, then, any less justification for the cooperative con- 
servation of bird life as between nations? 

One of our wading birds, the Golden Plover, at one time so 
plentiful at certain seasons along the Atlantic Coast and in the 
Mississippi Valley as to be marketed in New York City by the 
barrelful, repairs during its short summer breeding season to the 
Arctic Coast of North America from Alaska eastward. There it 
finds safety for its young as well as adequate food. In late 
summer the flocks of Golden Plover, adults and young, start on 
their southward migration, going eastward to the Labrador Coast, 
thence to Nova Scotia and the coast of New England ; then they 
undertake a journey of 2500 miles across the Atlantic Ocean to 
Brazil, and thence proceed to the plains of Argentina. In the last 
named country the birds spend their wintertime, then start north- 
ward in the early spring along a course different from that 
followed in the fall. Passing through northwestern South 
America and through Central America they cross the Gulf of 
Mexico, follow up the Mississippi Valley across the central part 
of the United States and continue on through central Canada to 
their breeding grounds on the Arctic Coast. In this annual 
circuit of more than 16,000 miles, as worked out by W. W. Cooke, 
the Golden Plover comes under the jurisdiction (where any 
regulations at all exist) of no less than seven different nations. 

This particular game bird does still exist, but probably in not 
one-hundredth part of its original numbers, and for this reason : 
It happens that the migrant throngs were intercepted without let 
or hindrance by market hunters at one critical point, at least, on 
their annual circuit, the coast of New England. Whole flocks 
were annihilated without regard to the principle of maintenance 
of breeding stock. 

Again let it be said that there is no doubt but that native birds 
of any sort can be so treated that an annual crop can be gathered. 
This has been done from time immemorial with permanently 
resident species of game birds in Scotland, Holland, and other 
European countries. 



470 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

Happily, the laws of the United States are now closely ap- 
proaching the ideal in their treatment of birds as a national 
asset. But no one country alone can handle the problem of the 
migratory species. Migratory birds constitute a common prop- 
erty among nations, and one which should be administered in 
common and shared with due regard to all the factors involved. 
An important step has been taken already in this direction. In 
1916 there was formulated as one provision of a treaty entered 
into between the United States and Canada a migratory bird 
clause, under the provisions of which each of the two countries 
is to adhere to a programme of absolute protection of insec- 
tivorous birds and of maximum limits of open seasons for game 
species. So far as my knowledge goes, this is the first important 
attempt at international agreement in the regulation of bird 
conservation. It is the beginning of a system which should in all 
reason prevail among countries throughout the world. 

In the birds of migratory habit we have a valuable asset 
which cannot be administered advantageously in any other way 
than through international cooperation. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 471 



SOME PHASES OF WORK OF BIOLOGICAL STATIONS 

John Freeman Bovard, B.S., M.S., Ph.D. 
Professor of Zoology, University of Oregon 

Mr. chairman, ladies and gentlemen : There are one or two 
points that I should like to make even though ray experience with 
biological stations is very limited. In the first place, looking 
over our coast, you will see that the biological stations are few in 
number. We have on our coast of California two stations that are 
doing fine work; but we run along a whole strip or stretch of 
coast northward, as far as Puget Sound, before we find another 
station. Then there is the whole of our north Pacific coast, clear 
up to Alaska, that is without any station or without any organized 
biological work going on throughout the year. So that it seems 
to me that one of the very first questions we ought to take up 
in order to understand the biological life of the Pacific Coast is 
that we should have more stations. And there seems to me to be 
no reason in the world why the United States Government should 
not help to support these stations, even though they may be 
manned by men dravra from the University for the peak of the 
load, which is done during the summer time, and at the same 
time the Government should spend a considerable amoimt of 
money in developing this sort of work. 

One of the resolutions made by the Western Society of Natur- 
alists this morning was in favor of the Government putting more 
money into investigations bearing upon these biological questions, 
just as they spend a great real of money in investigating prob- 
lems in agriculture and horticulture; and for this purpose we 
need many more stations. 

The second point occurs to me because I find that at my 
station, for example, we work more or less blindly. We have 
problems coming up which need for their solution the help and 
information and suggestions from other stations. We have at 
each of the six stations peculiar conditions. Occasionally there 
are conditions coming up that we have no explanation for. As 



472 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

a usual thing at the Puget Sound station the maturing of animal 
life comes rather late in some years and in other years it is rather 
early. The Strongylocentrotus franciscanus produces rather 
early, usually before the first of June ; but last year those animals 
were breeding during July and even up into August. There 
must, of course, be some explanation for that, and the work done 
at other stations in connection with the problems of oceanography 
and meteorology for example, would surely help in solving such 
changes. 

If we had some way by which all the workers and all the 
people who are interested in this sort of thing could be brought 
together we could find a more expeditious method of solving 
some of these problems. So I make this suggestion, that there 
be formed here on the Pacific Coast some sort of coordinating 
committee ; this committee to be composed of the directors, let us 
say, of all the stations along the coast. The problems which come 
up at each particular station could then be discussed, and the 
more important things picked out and stress laid upon them. The 
larger problems could be organized and the work assigned to the 
various stations, selecting in each case the station that could do 
the work to the best advantage. There are a great many men 
who would be glad to work at these stations if they had direction, 
and I think that such assistance should be utilized. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 473 



BOTANICAL INFORMATION WHICH WE SHOULD 
BE SEEKING 

T. C. Frye, B.S., Ph.D. 

Professor of Botany, University of Washington 

I naturally take this subject from a botanical side because I 
am a botanist. I suppose the botanical side has been less studied 
that the zoological, on account of the fact that the food comes 
daily from the animal side, almost entirely so. So long as 
animals were abundant their plant food was not a particular 
matter of importance. But it naturally follows that when the 
animals begin to fall short the question of the plants in the ocean 
will become increasingly important. 

In the study of plants, in the study of animals, in the study 
of any scientific problem, the first thing to know is what we 
have. The first thing to find out is what we have in the ocean. 
That is not easily done now on account of the fact that the 
literature is scattered, and we have inadequate keys. I am glad 
to say, however, that Dr. Setchell and Dr. Gardner are working 
on a key which will be of great assistance. We need to have 
more of that kind of work done. When we want to know what 
we have we must go at the geographical distribution of these 
plants, because the very description must depend on the food 
of the animals which live on them, more or less, but not entirely. 
This geographical investigation is under way at present. I 
understand Dr. Setchell is working on something which will give 
a general distribution, or zone, of the plants at sea. That is, 
however, very general, I take it, from what I hear. Large zones 
are given; but we need the exact distribution, not only of large 
zones but smaller areas on each shore. This information which 
may be gathered at any point, can be done, I think, by a little 
coordination which does not require any particular help from the 
Government or anybody. I do not see why it would not be a wise 
plan to have a sort of a card catalogue, but instead of cards to 
have sheets of paper of the ordinary letter size, giving on the 



474 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

paper such information as the name, the literature upon it, the 
region where it is found, and other information concerning its 
utility. The beauty of a plan of that kind would be that when 
all the universities or stations were busy on a question of that 
kind anybody would know as soon as an observation had been 
made all there was to know upon that point, and we would not 
be doing the same thing all over again. The directors of the 
marine station could confer about such a plan without a great 
deal of trouble. 

Of course it all sifts down, as has been said, to food, and the 
origin of that food ; and that question, so far as the botanists have 
been concerned, has practically been neglected; there has been 
very little, if anything, done on that subject. It is true that 
seaweeds are sometimes found in the stomachs of animals, and 
there have been some records made by zoologists, but by the 
botanists nothing has been done. We need to have a duplicate 
record. "We need to know from the plant side what the plant 
has eaten, and we need to know from the animal side what the 
animal has eaten. It is exactly the same as from the point of 
view of agriculture what plant is best for the animal. We want 
to know it from the animal side and we want to know it from the 
plant side, because we want to know what plants to raise for 
the animals. Then we can study the conditions under which 
those plants best grow, just as we study the crops. It is the 
study of the physiology of plants through which we are to get at 
the best conditions to produce the greatest amount of food, which 
seems to be the field of the botanist. Then there is the question 
of temperature : what temperature affects plants ; what is the 
range of temperature; what is the optimum — for you get a 
maximum, minimum and optimum — and then try to determine 
the one best suited for growth. The chemical content of sea water 
is another factor. Sometimes a slight quantity strongly affects 
a plant and determines its distribution. The light, of course, is 
a large problem in the sea ; more so than it is on land, on account 
of the fact that the sea water shifts so rapidly. We ought to 
know how far down every plant can grow, and we ought to know 
where it grows best. The carbon dioxide requirements of a plant 
must be considered, which may not necessarily be in the form of 
carbon dioxide; it may be in the form of carbonates. In fact. 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 475 

we are not sure as yet exactly which is of the greatest benefit 
to marine plants, carbon dioxides or carbonates themselves. The 
amount of sulphur in the sea water is another condition. We 
have enough work here for all the marine biologists — enough 
work for several hundred years. That is not so surprising when 
you consider how long it has taken us to settle the land plants, 
and the land plants are not as diificult to get at as the sea plants. 
I believe, therefore, that if we can devise some system of 
keeping a file, we could then readily get at all the available data, 
for example, in regard to what plants are eaten by certain 
animals. Of course, the plant might be eaten by an animal which 
is not useful for human food, and that be eaten by another, until 
eventually the food does reach an animal which is good for 
human food. In the present state of our knowledge we may be 
killing some of those animals which are intermediate between 
the sea plants and the food animals for man, while we may be 
conserving some of those animals which form no link in the chain. 
It seems to me we have a great field for the study of marine life 
on the plant side. 

Discussion 

Dr. DAVID STARR JORDAN : The Chinese worked out some three 
thousand years ago the essential problems of fish food and also 
the world qualities. The statement goes like this: Great fish eat 
little fish, little fish eat shrimps, and shrimps eat mud. What we 
want to know is the nature of the mud. There are certain ele- 
ments we do not know very much about; for instance, fish feed- 
ing on seaweed eat almost entirely that which is thin and green 
in color, but that is the only kind. I never saw a fish eating brown 
or olive green, and I do not know of ever seeing any eat the red 
ones. Now comes big fish eat little fish, and little fish eat shrimps 
and shrimps eat mud ; so the ultimate food of these animals and 
the conditions on which they depend are what we want to know 
about. I do not ask the botanist to study diatomes or bacteria. 
They used to have a title "the diatomaniacs. " 

But to be more serious, I am in full sympathy with Dr. Ritter 
as to the importance of having a survey of this kind. There 
are now and then young men, and I have one in mind who has 
gone into the army, who are interested, not in the diatomes under 



476 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

the glass but in the problems of pathology which appeal to them. 
I do know that it is pretty hard to get men (especially where there 
is no pay attached) to do this work, and especially in water so 
heavy that the bacilli cannot live in it. Perhaps I have said all 
I have to say about this matter but not all I feel about it. 

In regard to the bird question, in its international aspect, I 
think laws will be passed protecting the birds going back and 
forth between the United States and Canada. I spent about three 
years on an international fishery law of that kind. Dr. Bitter 
was my valued assistant in that work. While working on that 
law I discovered an interesting principle guiding the men in the 
State of Washington who were engaged in killing the fish that 
spawned in Canada and then came to the United States. It was 
very simple: ''Whatever is not nailed down is mine; whatever 
can be pried off is not nailed down." 

Fish go back and forth from one country to another, and 
birds spend the greater part of their lives in flying between 
countries. I have taken a great deal of interest in bird protec- 
tion. In Europe I found that there were all sorts of singing 
birds that were sold in the market, and particularly the bull finch, 
a very beautiful bird. I talked with Professor Sarrazin, Pro- 
fessor of Zoology of the University of Basel — a member of the 
Committee on Bird Protection — and he said that it was impos- 
sible to do anything with the Italians in stopping them from 
killing birds ; that they were never able to make the people pay 
any respect to the laws affecting the birds. From time im- 
memorial the people had the view that all the birds ought to be 
eaten ; and it is pitiful to see the number of birds sold in markets 
in the Italian towns. That is another thing we cannot do any- 
thing about, the protection of the birds in Europe, and yet the 
protection of birds is one of the most important things naturalists 
can deal with. To protect any kind of animal you have to know 
what its habits are and its history. 

The CHAIRMAN: These conferences are just the beginning of 
future conferences that are to follow; and the questions that 
have been raised now have supplied much food for thought which 
we hope will call forth numerous papers and fruitful discussion in 
the years to come. While much cannot be done during the con- 
tinuance of the war, yet the movement has started, and should be 



CONFEEENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 477 

kept alive. That it will continue to occupy the thoughts of those 
who are interested and will eventually lead to something of 
importance seems quite certain. 

There is no doubt that biologists and oceanographers and 
meteorologists in other countries, in Jpaan, and in Great Britain, 
in Canada and in Mexico, will be interested in these questions, 
and will cooperate with us in anything we may undertake to do. 



478 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAB¥ 



CONFEEENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 

FIFTH SESSION 

Chairman, Thomas Forsyth Hunt, B.S., M.S., D.Agr., Se.D. 

Professor of Agriculture, Dean of the College of Agriculture, 
Director of Agricultural Experiment Station 

PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND 
RESEARCH 

The CHAIRMAN: I do hope that this audience will not think 
that I am frivolous if I call attention to the scene out of the 
windows that we are facing. I think it has some significance. 
We are facing here the Golden Gate. At this hour, at this 
moment, the eyes of the world are upon Japan. If you have 
attended the various conferences and discussions, you cannot help 
but be impressed with the fact that everywhere the question of 
the relation between the United States and Japan in this great 
crisis is an imminent one. Just what the result is going to be 
nobody knows. I say this, make this emphasis here for fear that 
this being the momentous political question just now we may 
overlook the significant fact that there are twenty-one countries 
bordering on the Pacific Ocean about which we need to have a 
better understanding. For example, if we look at the economic 
question, the land question, the question of sociology, and so on, 
I fancy the little country of New Zealand has more to teach us 
than almost any country; yet I have not heard the name men- 
tioned in these conferences up to date. What I am trying to 
point out is that today we are to get away perhaps for the 
moment from this great political question, which is so very im- 
portant to the human race, and to discuss certain other questions 
which are also of vital importance to our country and to the 
twenty-one countries, if that happens to be the number, which 
border upon the Pacific Ocean. 

Therefore, it gives me great pleasure to be able to present to 
this audience one who has studied these other important ques- 
tions, and has studied them in other countries that border upon 
the Pacific Ocean. Dr. Elwood Mead, Professor of Rural Insti- 
tutions, University of California, has spent seven or eight years 
in Australia, building up certain economic and social plans, some 
of which are destined to be transplanted to America. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 479 



SCIENTIFIC AND EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS OF 
AGRICULTURE IN COUNTRIES BORDER- 
ING THE PACIFIC OCEAN 

Elwood Mead, B.S., M.S., D.Eng. 

Professor of Eural Institutions, University of California 

Agriculture and political developments in Pacific Ocean lands 
are giving a new interest and importance to that region and are 
tending to draw all these lands closer together. Japan and the 
United States are active competitors for the trade of the western 
coast of South America. Trade brings personal contact. People 
know each other better. This country is not only a buyer of the 
products of Peru and Chile, but American skill and money are 
the chief agents in the development of the immense mineral 
wealth of Chile and Peru, These two South American countries 
resemble California in climate. "We are destined to be close 
neighbors in the future. They have given us our most valuable 
variety of alfalfa, while we are beginning to supply them with 
improved breeds of livestock. California is the state where they 
can get the most valuable practical lessons in improving the 
agriculture of their two countries. 

The lands of the Orient and the Pacific Coast countries of 
North America also are becoming nearer neighbors, or rather 
their relations are becoming more important and complicated. 
In the past we looked to those countries for things we did not 
produce and thence did not need to understand. The people and 
countries of the East were distant and nebulous. It was a world 
apart from our own. India, China, and Japan were places to be 
traded with but not lived in. Religion, political ideals, habits of 
life, everything which we include under the term "civilization" 
were unlike those of English-speaking peoples, and formed a 
barriar to more intimate relations. 

The expanding trade of Australia, the acquirement of the 
Philippines, and the development of many Pacific islands by 
American and European capital had, before the war, started new 
currents of travel and trade toward America. These, unfor- 



480 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

tunately, did not enter Pacific ports and thus cross the United 
States. We missed the contact and lost the financial reward 
which, by virtue of our position, we should have enjoyed. It was 
unfortunate in two ways: it caused the loss to this country of 
millions of dollars, and it lessened the example and influence of 
American democracy. 

The war has, fortunately, brought us into our own. The 
menace of the submarine in the Mediterranean and Atlantic is 
bringing the business of the Orient to San Francisco and other 
coast cities. It is giving the Golden Gate a new significance and 
making Pacific lands more attractive fields of endeavor and 
opportunity. 

We need to know and understand these lands because we are 
to take a leading part in their development. Their prosperity 
will be to our advantage. The character of their civilization is 
certain to react on ours. 

Last month there came into the harbor of San Francisco over 
fourteen million pounds of copra, over eight million pounds of 
hemp and jute, a very large tonnage of wool, and a larger but 
unknown tonnage of sugar. In Seattle and San Francisco it has 
caused importers to build here new wharves and warehouses, and 
to prepare for a commerce hitherto regarded as destined inevit- 
ably to go elsewhere. 

The great bulk of these imports is agricultural products. We 
are just beginning to understand the meaning of the meat in 
the cocoanut. It is the cheapest substitute for butter, the best 
source of glycerine, and the basis of all fine soaps. Within the 
last six months over two million dollars have been contracted for 
to be spent in San Francisco for factories to crush copra, and 
for tanks to hold cocoanut oil. This trade has grown in the 
Pacific ports like Jonah's gourd. The imports in 1914 were less 
than four million dollars. This year they will be fifty million 
dollars. This increase is due in part to the expanding produc- 
tion and in part to the fact that the German traders in copra 
have been driven out of the Pacific. 

Another product of the Pacific of increasing importance is 
rubber. Before the war it went mainly to HoUand. Now it 
comes to America. Wool, jute, hemp, and Sumatra tobacco also 
look for an American rather than a European market. Until 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 481 

recently we have been in an eddy of this trade. It passed through 
Canada on the north, through the Panama Canal, or around 
Cape Horn to the south. War is sending it here. More trans- 
pacific travel passes through San Francisco and Seattle and more 
freight comes to these two ports now than ever before. People 
vitally interested believe that this change in trade routes is 
destined to be permanent. The capitalists of Java have estab- 
lished a regular Dutch shipping service between that island and 
San Francisco. The recently established shipping service be- 
tween India, Australia, and San Francisco brings record cargoes, 
and reports wharves piled high with freight awaiting shipment. 

In 1913 the commerce of the four ports of Seattle, Portland, 
San Francisco, and Los Angeles amounted to less than three 
hundred million dollars. In 1917 it was over nine hundred 
million dollars. The greater part of this increase in imports is 
agricultural products from the Far East. 

German control of the copra trade placed some of the largest 
soapmakers of the world in bondage. The war has freed them. 
As a result one English firm of soapmakers is spending five 
million dollars planting cocoanut trees. American capital and 
American enterprise are also taking an active part in extending 
the cocoanut groves of the Philippines. In the Samoan Islands, 
in the Fijis, and on hundreds of coral islands, the old, worthless 
tropical vegetation is being cleared away and the lands bordering 
the coast planted to cocoanut palms. 

Only second in importance to copra is the development of the 
rubber industry in the South Sea Islands. Hundreds of millions 
of English and Australian capital has been invested in this 
industry during the last fifteen years. Formerly, most of the 
raw rubber was shipped to Holland. Now the enlarged require- 
ments of American rubber manufacturers have become too great 
for them to depend on the enterprise and money of other coun- 
tries. As the South Sea Islands have given the best results in 
the production of cultivated rubber, the American rubber com- 
panies are investing in rubber plantations in Borneo and New 
Guinea just as they are growing cotton in Arizona. The Good- 
year and Goodrich tire companies, and possibly other rubber 
companies, are investing millions of dollars in rubber plantations 
in the island area between India and New Zealand. 



482 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENAEY 

These examples of expanding agricultural production in 
things this country must have and which cannot be grown at 
home are mentioned to illustrate our growing interest in the 
agriculture of Pacific Ocean lands. We need to know more 
about what can be produced. We need to know more about the 
conditions of life under which people now live, and in what way 
these conditions can be improved. No part of the globe has 
greater ethical and political interest. Nine hundred million 
people of the Oriental races occupy the lands in and around the 
Pacific. They are beginning to be stirred by a common racial 
pride and ambition. Many of their leaders believe the time has 
come when they should assert their right to help shape the affairs 
of the world. Count Okuma of Japan voiced this rising ambition 
for world power when he said the present war means the death 
of European civilization. The ultimate political complications 
of this rising racial feeling is destined to be the greatest problem 
of English-speaking peoples. America and Great Britain front 
these lands on the eastern and western shores of this ocean. On 
the east are Alaska, Canada, and the United States. On the west 
these is a shallow sea so thickly dotted with islands and conti- 
nents that on the map it looks feasible to start from the Malay 
Peninsula and walk or wade southward two thousand miles to 
Tasmania. This island constellation includes the Philippines, 
Bornea, Sumatra, Java, New Guinea, Australia, and the myriad 
coral and volcanic islands of Milanasia, buttressed at the south 
by New Zealand. 

Now that Germany has been eliminated and Japan largely 
barred, the responsibility for material development and for 
enabling the people to live orderly lives and to share the benefits 
of modern civilization is largely the duty of ourselves and Great 
Britain. In many ways these are the favored regions of the globe. 
They will in time be the home of a dense population. Java, which 
is only half the size of California, has over thirty-two million 
people. Under the thrifty direction of Holland six hundred 
people to the square mile live in comfort and contentment. 

The rubber groves of Borneo and New Guinea, the sugar 
plantations of the Fijis, and the cocoanut groves of the Coral 
Islands foreshadow in the near future an agriculture supporting 
hundreds of millions of people. Here, the innate qualities of the 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 483 

English-speaking race will be tested. If they create homes filled 
with independent people, imbued with love of law and order and 
justice, it will add new glory to the race. One of our greatest 
fields of educational research is to know how we shall do worthily 
our part. 

Our control over the Philippines, the Hawaiian Islands, and 
a part of the Samoan group makes it a national duty to under- 
stand these countries and their peoples. What they need is an 
ordered development based on plans carefully thought out; and 
that involves research and investigation to obtain the facts needed 
for intelligent planning. What we have done in the Philippines, 
and the greater achievements of Australia and New Zealand are 
encouraging reasons for wider and bolder endeavors. No one 
can understand these social and economic efforts without feeling 
that the race to which we belong is meeting its responsibilities 
in this field and is true to its inherited instincts. 

All of these lands are beautiful; all are interesting. The 
island of Levuca, in the Fijis, and the harbor of Pago Pago in 
the Samoans have a beauty of outline and luxuriance of vegeta- 
tion which make them worthy of a visit even if they had no 
latent resources to study. One of the remarkable successes of 
the Fiji group is the beef cattle industry. The volcanic soil is so 
fertile and the rainfall so favorable that the number of cattle 
an acre of land will support seems unbelievable to dwellers in 
temperate climes. I heard a cattle grower offer to make a large 
wager that he could stake out a Hereford steer at the end of a 
fifty-foot picket rope and keep him fat for twelve months on 
the grass growing within the area covered by that rope. 

In its geology Australia is interesting. It is the oldest land 
on this planet. In its social and political life it is the most 
advanced and up-to-date country on the globe. Melbourne is one 
of the handsomest and best planned cities in the world. But a 
few miles out of the city is a cliff one thousand feet high carved 
out by river erosion in Silurian times. This cliff was there before 
the first bird or reptile or mammal had been born. It was there 
before most of the material out of which the Alps are built had 
been laid down under the seas of Central Europe. The isolation 
of this continent is almost as impressive as its age. For un- 
numbered ages the seasons ran their courses with this continent 



484 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 

separated from all other lands by its ocean barriers. The 
Geologic period when the connection with Asia sank below the 
sea is too remote and uncertain to be fixed. "When and how its 
plants and animals developed is only a matter of surmise. Birds 
could come here from other lands, because some of the birds of 
Australia nest and breed in China. But Australia has a rare 
group of birds which are non-flyers. The most noted are the 
lyre bird and the emu. Its animals are interesting because 
many of them do not represent an evolution from a lower to a 
higher form, but a degeneration from a higher to a lower. Its 
trees and its shrubs show the effect of centuries of conflict with 
aridity. One interesting thing is that of aU the native animals, 
birds, and plants none have proved serious obstacles to the 
development of agriculture and civilization. The dingo was never 
an aggressive sheep killer; and it is only recently and under 
abnormal conditions that the mice have become a pest. When, 
however, opportunity knocked at the mouse's door he was ready. 
Three wheat crops stored for his exclusive use caused such 
increase that they are now being slaughtered not by dozens but 
by tons. A photograph just received from Australia shows a 
half million mice, weighing eight tons, caught in three nights at 
the grain stacks of a little town in the State of Victoria. 

On the other hand, many of the useful birds and animals 
introduced from Europe have multiplied so rapidly as to become 
a serious national menace, and a source of serious national 
expense. Four starlings turned loose less than fifty years ago 
now cause immense losses to the fruit growers of the eastern and 
southern parts of the continent. The descendants of a few 
domestic rabbits threaten to ruin the stockmen by eating all the 
grass. Babbitting has become an important industry supporting 
many men and a multitude of dogs. The fox was imported to 
keep down the rabbits and to give to the transplanted landlord 
his national pastime. It abandoned the rabbit for the lamb and 
the wingless birds, and now threatens to exterminate the lyre 
bird, one of the most interesting and beautiful birds in the world. 

Australia and New Zealand, together, have an area slightly 
larger than the United States. They produce the finest wool of 
any country. The foundations of these flocks came from Ver- 
mont. Whether this developed superiority is due to climate or 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 485 

to the more expert management of the Australian floekmaster is 
something we ought to determine. Closer connection of the two 
countries will bring this knowledge. Australian sheep exhibited 
at the Panama-Pacific Exposition showed American breeders 
that they were superior to our own. As a result there has sprung 
up an import trade in pure-bred Australian sheep. Breeders of 
the arid region are going to New Zealand instead of England to 
improve their flocks. Three shipments have been sunk by Ger- 
man raiders in the Pacific without stopping the traffic. 

There is certain to be a great increase in reciprocal trade and 
in personal intercourse between the people of Australasia and 
America in the future. In 1907 only three small ships ran regu- 
larly between America and Australian ports. Seven years later 
this number had increased to eight. At the beginning of this 
seven-year period the three small ships were losing money ; at 
the end of the eighth they were making money. The last ship 
built was the largest passenger vessel going to Australia. This 
trade is reciprocal instead of competitive. Australia is south 
of the equator while we are north of it. We send apples in 
September and receive return cargoes of onions in April. 

Australia and New Zealand resemble California in climate, 
in productions, and in the habits and ideas of the people. Both 
are irrigated countries and the interior of both is arid. As agri- 
culture and trade increase these two countries are certain to 
come into more intimate relation with each other, and to gain 
by a knowledge of each other. Today Australia surpasses Cali- 
fornia in the quality of its wheat. We need to know why. They 
have better shipping arrangements to distant markets for their 
butter, cheese, and fresh meats. We need to know how this is 
accomplished. We surpass them in our orchards and vineyards. 
We grow a better orange and market it to better advantage. Our 
raisin industry is better organized. We make better wine. They 
need to understand the reasons, and they now have a staff of 
experts here endeavoring to find them. 

We need to know more than we do of the character and 
significance of the social and political institutions of Australia 
and New Zealand. One illustration of the need for this knowledge 
will be given. A part of Australia is as tropical as India. It is 
capable of producing crops of great acreage value. The swarm- 



486 VNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENABT 

ing population and cheap labor of India and of the near-by 
islands gave the opportunity to develop the country rapidly with 
colored labor, while with white labor developments must be slow. 
Owning the land and having control, there was the temptation 
to the dominant white race to secure sudden and great wealth 
by disregarding the principles of democracy and creating an 
industrial society made up of landed aristocrats and ignorant 
and servile laborers ; in other words, a society separated by caste. 
Sugar, pineapples, and cotton could be grown; the cheap labor 
was at hand. This temptation was put aside. The sacrifice was 
made in order that the continent might develop as a homogeneous 
white democracy and that the purity of the race might be pre- 
served. It means a slow growth but ultimately a strong nation. 

This action of Australia has required the exclusion of Hindus 
and Japanese. To do this a handful of people had to resist the 
pressure of England and the protests of both Japan and India. 
There is nothing finer in the history of the English race than this 
courageous and unselfish devotion to a political ideal. Inci- 
dentally, it raises a question as to whether this nation has not 
been too careless of the number and quality of the people we 
have admitted. Our Republic is still an experiment. The his- 
tory of other republics which have disappeared has shown that 
nearly always this was due to the influx of outside people. 
Instead of a race they became a mongrel people. All strong 
democracies must have a substantial agreement as to their social 
and political ideals. The strength of a nation is not measured 
by its territory or wealth but by agreement of a people in thought 
and feeling. Australia's action was not based on any feeling of 
racial superiority but on a recognition of the fact that the ideas 
and habits of other people were different and that this was likely 
to lead to discord. The M^ay to have agreement was to have 
people who had been accustomed for a long period to act and 
think alike. This action ought to have our attention before we 
drift too far in the contrary direction. 

Whether the white race can develop the agricultural resources 
of northern Australia is still a disputed question. Expert 
opinions differ; but the trial is being made and we ought to 
watch keenly its progress. It has a direct relation to our policy 
in the Hawaiian and Philippine Islands. The Hawaiian Islands 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 487 

are one of our outposts. They are one of the world's meeting 
places, and they show and will continue to show our ability or 
unfitness to shape, under unusual conditions, the civilization of 
a new country. Confronted by the same problem as Australia 
we went after quick and easy development and ignored future 
social and political problems. The result is a group of very 
wealthy and worthy sugar planters and a laboring population 
made up of Portuguese, Chinese, Japanese, Hindus, and natives, 
which vastly outnumber the Americans and will in time rule the 
islands if we retain the principles of self-government. We have 
had a quick development and politically a dangerous one. 

If we continue the land policy of the past the Hawaiian 
Islands will be neither a political nor an economic democracy. 
Self-government will be as impossible as it is in San Domingo. 
If American citizens can create an agriculture there under which 
they can live and work they ought to be given the opportunity 
to do this. One million six hundred thousand acres of public 
land will soon be available for settlement or for sale to the highest 
bidder. If it could be settled by Americans of the ability and 
character of the men who went there from New England as 
missionaries a half -century ago they would make a great con- 
tribution to the future civilization of Pacific lands and remove 
from the mainland a reproach and a menace. Here is an inviting 
and important field of study: Can white men settle these lands? 
What kind of agriculture will be most successful? What kind of 
aid and direction should be given by the nation or the territory? 
I hope all who attend this meeting will carry these questions 
home for careful consideration, for they are among the great 
material and ethical problems of the Pacific. 



488 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABT 



ADDRESS OF WILLIAM WYLIE MACKIE, B.S., M.S. 
Assistant Professor of Agronomy, University of California 

The CHAIRMAN: I will first call upon a gentleman who has 
spent considerable time in Mexico and knows the agricultural 
conditions there, and who has also spent much time in Russia. 
I will ask Professor W. W. Mackie to open the discussion this 
morning. 

Professor w. w. mackie : Dean Hunt, Ladies and Gentlemen : 
I assure you that I will not be able to present the entire Mexican 
aspect in regard to agriculture and its relations to the United 
States in a few moments, but I hope to make a few statements 
regarding Mexico and its relations with the United States which 
will be of interest. 

The lands of Mexico are mineralized from one end of the 
country to the other. Petroleum, which now plays such an im- 
portant part in supplying the fleets of the allied nations, is pro- 
duced in abundance. Mexico since the earliest time has not been 
considered primarily as a mineral country, although gold prob- 
ably attracted the settlers there. There are a number of crops 
grown in Mexico which were first, so far as we know, cultivated 
in that region. The civilization of the world, as I see it, has been 
based upon the ability to store some cereal crop in order that 
manufacture or some other form of industry might be followed. 
Mexico's form of civilization was based on the maize crop, and 
we have, so far as the records show, the first use of maize as a 
crop in Mexico. It was originated there. Cortez, when he landed 
in Mexico, found the natives cultivating maize and cotton. From 
that cotton we have grown most of the cotton in the world. We 
have crowded the Europeans out of the field, and we all know 
the important part that cotton is playing in this world's war. 
We also know that the American nation raised last year over 
three million bushels of maize, which also plays an important part 
in civilization. We also find that fiber was first used and grown 
in Mexico and we know that the binder twine industry depends 
almost entirly on hellequin fiber, which is grown in Yucatan, 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 489 

Mexico. Potatoes also first came from Mexico; and the vanilla 
bean, which is a world product, originated there. There are 
many other products which have come from Mexico and have 
been placed in the agricultural products of civilized nations. 

These products Mexico has contributed through Mexican 
civilization; they have cultivated these plants, and they have 
given them to us. Such things make the possibilities of Mexico 
for agriculture tremendous. "With this as a start we will expect 
Mexico to present to the world a splendid agriculture. This much 
is true : the soil, climate, and adaptability to handle agricultural 
products is all there, but there is a great gap between what 
Mexico might do and what she does do. 

The Mexican nation is largely Indian in sympathy and almost 
wholly so in blood, and that is another point that the Americans 
do not realize. They have an organized government and organ- 
ized agriculture, and these things still exist to this day and are 
there to be used. The Mexican Republic, since it began about a 
century ago, has looked to this republic for its standing. They 
have patterned their government in its form from our own, and 
they have tried to use our forms of government and agriculture, 
because they believed them best for themselves. The struggle 
has not been altogether successful, because we have developed 
our agriculture piece by piece, the same as our political institu- 
tions, and our methods are not adapted to Mexican conditions. 

At this time in these discussions on international relations, 
we look far to the east and far to the west, but we overlook one 
of the greatest countries that we have to deal with, and one with 
which we are intimately connected, and that is our sister republic, 
Mexico. Through the fog and heated revolutions we fail to see 
the proper relations with this republic in the south. We think 
there is an upheaval there ; and yet they have followed our cus- 
toms and started things with a revolution. But they have failed 
to accompany this with results, and it is for us in a way to be 
responsible for the keeping of this nation. 

I am not addressing you in regard to the political institutions ; 
it is not necessary; there is enough interest in the development 
of Mexican agriculture in connection with our own to make the 
state wealthy. The institutions of agriculture in Mexico have 
been patterned as was a great deal of their civil government 



490 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

after our own agricultural institutions. There is a central 
organization in Mexico City. There are experimental stations in 
various states, and they are of the same general form which we 
have. But the Mexican has neglected, for very good reasons, the 
scientific or the research side. He has demanded that the agri- 
cultural education and institutions be used for practical pur- 
poses; the agriculture of that country needs developing along 
practical lines. You will find that they have accepted our 
research and agricultural bulletins, as well as those of European 
stations, and have used them and put them forth in Mexican 
bulletins and circulars, as we do in our own agricultural stations. 
They have gathered together many forms of educational matter 
for the people of Mexico engaged in farming, but they find great 
difficulty in making the people use these things. It is very hard 
to teach a large mass of farmers and get them to change their 
methods when they are absolutely controlled by political and 
social systems. We have seen the abolition of the peon in Mexico ; 
it is a splendid thing to abolish; a free man is more desirable, 
and I have handled both peon and free Mexican, and I can assure 
you that the difference between the two is just as much as with 
any other race. The idea of all those who have led the different 
forms of Mexican government in recent years has been to en- 
courage agriculture, and there has not been a single leader who 
has gone contrary to that purpose. They have tried to make the 
people enthusiastic and to grow orchards, and to get the people 
to grow citrus orchards to compete with the United States. But 
they ran across this obstacle : they could not establish themselves 
and were not able to make independent small farms. It is along 
this line that we can do the most good for Mexico. To illustrate : 
when a farmer in Mexico grows a small field of corn, he has no 
capital. He gets a man to advance him money for his needs and 
for the care of his family until the harvesting of his crop. He 
is advanced from 40 to 60 per cent of the possible average market 
price of his crop ; and when he gets his money, not being provi- 
dent, he wastes a great deal of it. He is a hard working, pleasure 
seeking person, and he should have his pleasure. The harvest 
crop is taken up by the person who advances the money and is 
put in warehouses, and in a short time it doubles and trebles 
what it was worth before being harvested, but the small farmer 
gets nothing but a mere pittance for his labor. 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 491 

That is the condition in which Mexican agriculture is today. 
It is certainly discouraging; the organizing of markets and 
organizing of industries such as we have in California is un- 
known. That this can be done I know ; it would surely encourage 
the farmer. In such ways as that agriculture can be made most 
useful to Mexico. Giving them an agricultural expert would be 
one of the few ways to settle that country. "When the agricultural 
population becomes self-supporting and independent the people 
will then begin to build up the foundations of a real republic 
and a democracy. At this time it is impossible to make as rapid 
progress as could be desired by all those who wish to see Mexico 
progress; it is impossible on account of the inability of the 
people to support themselves in their independence; the con- 
ditions are adverse to it. The Mexican government, whatever 
form it happened to take, has always recognized that agriculure 
will do this, and they have endeavored to use all the methods 
possible to increase the education of the people in agriculture. 

In this important matter the efforts of the Americans have 
been very little. We Americans are poor linguists ; we do not go 
abroad. The Mexican agricultural, educational, and scientific 
workers have all gone to Europe when they had at hand the best 
trained body of scientific agriculturists in the world. We have 
neglected Mexico in not having placed there many trained agri- 
culturists from this country. It may be that you will think that 
I have taken for granted a great deal; that the Mexican is not 
able to take on this education and to advance in agriculture. It 
is always a pleasure to me to state that I have great hope and 
faith in the ordmary Mexican peon in regard to making him a 
regular farmer, such as we have in this country. I found myself 
at one time all alone — the only American in a large place in 
Mexico, on a large farm, and I will assure you that those Mexicans 
there had done everything that the Americans had done before 
them, from the handling of all kinds of machinery for the culti- 
vating and harvesting the crops to the keeping of accounts and 
running stores. It is not at all impossible for them to do all the 
things which we see being done in this country. But it is im- 
possible to expect them to do it in the same way as we do it, or 
to have the same ideas about it. Each nation has its own ideas 
about managing things, and its own social conditions. If this 



492 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

can be borne in mind, all the improved methods of agriculture 
that we engage in here can be transplanted to Mexico, provided 
we take into consideration the conditions of that country, and 
do not try to impose upon the people the conditions that we 
have in this country. With this in mind I see no reason why 
we should not help Mexico in her production of agricultural 
products. 

I may state that the two countries are dependent on each 
other. Mexico, in spite of what she grows, imports every year 
great quantities of corn. At the same time they do not produce 
sufficient wheat to feed themselves ; there is an increasing demand 
for wheat, and they do not and cannot supply it in their own 
fields. At the same time there is a large range of products which 
we get from Mexico, so that agriculture should be advanced 
except in the tropical fruits. In regard to the citrus industries 
there, I will state that we have feared Mexico would give us 
pests that we could not overcome, and she has done so ; but this 
in no way should be any reason for a lack on our part of an 
understanding of Mexican conditions, and a lack of sympathy 
for their agriculture. We should not, so far as we can prevent 
it, allow Mexico to be contaminated with pests which will soon 
become our own. This is another reason why we should have 
very close relations with Mexico in regard to agriculture, 

I will conclude by stating that I hope that all those who have 
any interest in Mexico will keep informed in regard to the 
progress of the social problems and their relation to agriculture. 
They look to us more for agricultural machinery and improved 
agricultural methods and the handling of markets than for any- 
thing else we may offer. 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL BEL AT IONS 493 



ADDRESS OF JOHN S. DONAGHHO, M.A. 

Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, University of Hawaii 

The chairman : I will call upon Professor John S. Donaghho 
of the University of Hawaii, to speak to us about Hawaii. 

Professor donaghho : I supposed it was the countries border- 
ing on the Pacific that were to be discussed this morning. It 
seems to me that the matter has been slightly reversed for it is 
the Pacific that borders on Hawaii. In Hawaii there are some 
very peculiar conditions in regard to agriculture, some of which 
have been already touched on. At the beginning I will call your 
attention to something that might not be familiar to you and 
which has only been so to me of late. 

In Hawaii arose the germ of modern school education. In 
the thirties of last century the American missionaries founded a 
school in Hilo for the education of Hawaiians, and in that school 
they introduced industries and agriculture and also carpenter- 
ing and the use of tools; the industry being started, I think, to 
enable the natives to help pay the expense of their education. 
Of course, it requires a certain amount of training ; but from that 
training there has developed a school that still exists, the Hilo 
Boarding School, and which still produces a great deal of excel- 
lent material. Later Samuel Chapman Armstrong, a veteran of 
the Civil War who took a deep interest in the negroes, attempted 
to introduce an educational system that would put the negroes 
upon a self-supporting footing; and in pondering over the 
methods to be adopted he went back to this Hilo Boarding School 
for some of his suggestions. So I think I am correct in saying 
that the Hilo Boarding School furnished the germ for a very 
important part in the industrial education of today. 

I am turning now to the peculiar conditions of agriculture 
in Hawaii. First, I will consider the topography. In Hawaii we 
have the low lands on the shore surrounding the island; there 
it is very fertile, and the soil supports the raising of vegetables, 
and the like, and the rice industry developed by the Chinese. 
Next above that is a sloping area rising to one thousand feet 
above the sea level, which is also very fertile; and upon these 
areas have been devoleped the sugar cane and pineapple Indus- 



494 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

tries. Above this there are very steep slopes running up to 
mountains which are covered with forests. This is devoted in a 
large part to cattle raising. The cattle raising has led to the 
partial destruction of the forest, and has caused serious problems 
in that respect. 

The second peculiarity that we have is the climatic peculiarity. 
Our tides, for instance, vary about two to two and one-half feet. 
That is, there is yery little disturbance in the ocean area around 
the Hawaiian Islands. In the same way our climate varies very 
little, and in the same way the temperature varies very little. 
Secondly, in dealing with the various agricultural problems and 
economic conditions, disturbing factors which occur in continental 
countries are here absent; and experiments are much easier to 
conduct in many respects. But the most important peculiarity 
is the economic situation. The one serious economic situation 
depends entirely upon the topographic structure of the island. 
We have large mountains, deeply cut by valleys, valleys which 
to the layman seem almost perpendicular, and which are very 
difficult to ascend even by using both hands and feet in many 
cases. The result is that transportation is a very difficult prob- 
lem by land in all parts of the island. It is almost nearly as 
difficult by sea, because harbors are few; and where harbors do 
not exist the matter of loading and unloading is difficult, and to 
a large extent is impossible. Therefore, transportation over land 
or sea is one of our great problems. The result is that the 
difficulties of transportation are absolutely prohibitive to the 
pursuit of agriculture to the middle class of people ; and I do not 
believe that agriculture will ever be developed in Hawaii until the 
transportation is taken up by the community. By that I mean 
not only the inter-community transportation conducted by the 
community there, but I think that transportation outside must 
be conducted by the community. The population of the Islands 
is small, and consequently agriculturists must very largely 
produce crops that can be exported. The sugar and pineapple 
industries are the only ones of importance so far; but some fruit 
could be developed to be exported. Nothing has been done 
because production is too precarious. As I remember, there was 
established a banana industry in Hilo, and there were excellent 
crops brought to Hilo for transportation which all rotted because 
it was impossible to get them out. 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 495 

The sugar industry in Hawaii has several times been threat- 
ened with extinction. The method of meeting it was the only 
method, and that was by scientific study and managemnt of the 
production, and the result is (I think I can say this without fear 
of contradiction) in Hawaii the sugar industry is an example of 
the most extensive application of scientific thought and capital 
to land producing the greatest per acre crop of any agriculture 
in the world. The result is that the sugar industry occupies 
almost ninety per cent of the production of the Islands. All the 
transportation facilities to outside markets are of course at the 
command of these preponderant interests ; consequently no second 
rate producer can expect to command transportation to outside 
markets. The second industry is the pineapple industry, which 
has been developed to a vast extent in a very short time, I think 
possibly in not over eighteen or twenty years. The pineapple 
industry is secondary, but I have heard of the pineapple industry 
pushing the sugar industry and preventing the management 
from getting ships to carry their product to outside markets at 
a time when it was absolutely necessary for them to get it. 
Fresh pineapples are practically not shipped at all from Hawaii 
except by express companies. Fresh pineapples, of course, have 
to go instantly. If the producers in Hawaii cannot secure the 
transportation immediately the only thing for them to do is to 
can the pineapples and keep them until the transportation is 
obtained. 

So it seems to me that, owing to these factors, the middle 
class in Hawaii can never be developed agriculturally until the 
community gets the positive assurance and assistance of the 
kind that is usually not given by American communities. I 
believe that the sugar industry will have to be controlled com- 
munally, and I think that the suggestion of Mr. Fisher is probably 
the first stage in that direction. He suggested that the com- 
munity could establish and operate sugar factories and accept 
sugar from the small producer on a par with the larger producers. 

I think those two points, transportation and factories, both 
pineapple and sugar factories, by the community would be 
absolutely necessary to the development of a middle class of 
producers in Hawaii, which I think is necessary for the admin- 
istration of the island. 



496 VNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 



ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND 
RESEARCH IN THE UNITED STATES 

J. W. GiLMOEE, B.S., M.A. 

Professor of Agronomy, University of California 

No adequate presentation of this subject can be rendered 
without referring back to the inception of agricultural education 
in this country. The first definite agitation for this object began 
about 1790, and the principal proponent for national interest in 
agricultural education and research was George Washington. It 
was in his first message to Congress, delivered on January 8th 
of that year, that he made the following significant statement : 

It will not be doubted that with reference either to individual or 
national welfare agriculture is of primary importance. In proportion as 
nations advance in population and other circumstances of maturity, this 
truth becomes more apparent, and renders the cultivation of the soil more 
and more an object of public patronage. Institutions for promoting it 
grow up, supported by the pubic purse; and to what object can it be 
dedicated with greater propriety? 

It is true that his incentive to make these statements grew 
out of what had already been done to show the need of a greater 
enlightenment in the principles involved in this industry by the 
affairs and activities of the several agricultural societies which 
had already been organized. However, it required considerable 
bravery on the part of any man at that time to make a statement 
that there were elements of educational value in the subject of 
agriculture, and probably for this reason as much as any other 
little material progress was made in the establishment of insti- 
tutions for promoting this purpose until the administration of 
President Buchanan, beginning in 1858. 

During the intervening years men whose vision was directed 
to the future, especially along the lines of industrial development 
for the country, were not idle in the formation of plans for a 
national system of education that should encourage agriculture 
and the mechanical arts. Agitation took place from time to time 
on the part of men interested in the welfare of the country and 
the subject became more and more clarified, its importance was 



CONFEBENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL BELATIONS 497 

more and more clearly conceived; so that by the middle of the 
nineteenth century several professorships had been established 
in the various universities or colleges, which proposed to include 
the subject of agriculture. Thus, in 1792, Columbia College in 
the city of New York appointed Samuel L, Mitchell professor 
of natural history, chemistry, and agriculture. There does not 
seem to be any record as to what subject matter was covered 
under the phase of agriculture attached to his title ; but at any 
rate he can be given the honor of the first man appointed in any 
of our institutions for the purpose of teaching agriculture. This 
notion became more and more popular, so that toward the middle 
of the century several professors were teaching this subject, but 
usually covered the field of botany, zoology, ornithology, and 
some phases of chemistry. All of these earlier men had to work 
against the opposition of their colleagues, who still held the 
notion that agriculture or the branches of science relating to it 
had no educative value. 

A very significant step, however, was taken when in 1836 
the Patent Office was made a separate Bureau of the Department 
of the Interior, and, as good fortune would have it, Henry L. 
Ellsworth of Connecticut was made commissioner. He was also, 
among other things, a very good farmer and had the interest of 
the farmers heavily upon his mind. "With his other duties he 
assumed that of distributing new seeds and plants which about 
that time began to be collected by our Government's represent- 
atives in various parts of this country as well as in countries 
abroad. It does not require further presentation to call to mind 
the enormous proportions into which this small beginning in 
seed distribution has grown. Because of Mr. Ellsworth's in- 
terest in agriculture he induced the Twenty-fifth Congress to 
provide a fund of one thousand dollars for the purpose of col- 
lecting and distributing seeds, and this seems to be the first 
money appropriated by the Federal Government for any phase 
of agricultural education. This fund, however, was not contin- 
uously appropriated, it having been deleted in 1840, 1841, and 
1846. However, interest was growing, and in 1854 the Congress 
made an appropriation of thirty-five thousand dollars, and an 
agent was added to the Patent Office force to investigate and 
report upon the habits of insects injurious and beneficial to 



498 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

vegetation; and a botanical garden was established in Wash- 
ington. Part of this fund was also to be devoted to the collection 
of meteorological data, which was entrusted to the Smithsonian 
Institute. 

The work had now begun, and since this appropriation of 
thirty-five thousand dollars the support for agriculture by the 
United States Congress has been continuous and has never grown 
less. In many respects the constant growth of interest and 
importance in this phase of the nation's work, as well as in the 
appropriations necessary to forward it, is one of the most re- 
markable instances of the services that a nation through its 
government can perform for its citizens. On May 15, 1862, 
President Lincoln signed an act of Congress establishing a de- 
partment of agriculture, separate and distinct from the work 
of the Patent Office, and this act is not less important than that 
which followed only a few months later in the establishment of 
the so-called Land Grant Colleges throughout the United States. 
This act was signed by President Lincoln on July 2nd of the 
same year. This measure had been before Congress on a previous 
occasion and had passed that board, but failed in receiving the 
approval of President Buchanan mainly on the ground that it 
was class legislation. A great deal of time and many words 
might be spent in eulogizing the importance and influence of 
these two acts, especially the latter. It is sufficient on this ques- 
tion, however, to say that perhaps in no country and at no pre- 
vious time had a step been taken so significant in the welfare of a 
nation's citizens. This point of view is only emphasized when it 
is remembered that up to this time men could receive a higher 
education only in the subjects of theology, medicine, and law ; and 
for women there was no opportunity whatever for an education 
beyond that provided by the public schools of the times. More- 
over, it was still maintained that the term education should not 
be used in connection with knowledge gained through agricul- 
ture, for agriculture, and by agriculture. In those days it was 
only admitted by many educators that men might be trained in 
these subjects, but not educated. I have only to add on this 
question that the man who knows fully a grain of wheat from 
its humanistic, its economic and scientific relationships is the 
wisest of men. 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 499 

So significant was this act in its bearing upon a broader out- 
look in education both in respect to subject matter as well as 
to those who were eligible to it that it is pertinent to quote at 
least one section of the act. As introductory to the paragraph let 
it be stated that the enabling portion of the act was in granting 
an allotment of thirty thousand acres of land for each senator and 
representative of the several states in Congress. The income from 
the sale of these lands was for the purpose as stated : 

The endowment, support and maintenance of at least one college where 
the leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical 
studies, and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning 
as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the 
legislatures of the states may respectively prescribe, in order to promote 
the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several 
pursuits and professions of life. 

It will be noticed that this paragraph is one single sentence, 
and I feel no hesitation in saying that there are few sentences 
in any language that convey a greater significance or are more 
replete with meaning than this one. A great deal might be said 
regarding its scope and influence during the years since it has 
been passed, but it is significant now to call attention to the 
fact that it opened up higher education to all classes of people, 
that it placed industrial branches of learning on a par with the 
classics, and that it breathes the truest spirit of democracy. 

These two acts form the basis of our present system of 
national and state agricultural education and research. These 
laws have not been changed in spirit, but they have been aug- 
mented by increased appropriations and by promoting the scope 
of their application. 

It would require hours to present even a superficial survey 
of the workings of these laws in the promotion of agriculture 
in this country; and the mere presentation of figures relating 
to capital and property involved, teachers engaged, and students 
enrolled are perhaps matters with which you are already familiar. 
The organization of these institutions as manifested at the pres- 
ent time throughout the entire United States may be presented 
in a general way by this chart. 

It would not be at all unusual if at this time some one should 
demand to know what advantage to the country has accrued 
from the work of these coordinated institutions. In answer to 



500 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

this hypothetical question I will offer one line of thought which 
I think is significant. In doing this I would make the assertion 
that the material and physical welfare of a nation is directly 
related to the diversification of its gainful occupations and to 
the equitable distribution of the population among those occu- 
pations. Thus the people of a counry may have twenty gainful 
industries, but if ninety-five per cent of the working population 
is engaged in one of these industries and five per cent should be 
engaged in the remaining nineteen, it could not be maintained 
that such a nation would be physically and materially well off. 
At least it would not be independent. Such conditions do to a 
certain extent exist in several countries of the Orient, namely, 
China and India. These nations have in official publications an- 
nounced the fact that at least seventy-five per cent of the working 
population is engaged in agriculture, and this corresponds with 
my own extended observations in these countries. It is main- 
tained that such a high percentage of the population engaged 
in agriculture is not in accordance with the best interests of 
those countries, and that their advancement in material and 
physical well being must be along the lines of diminishing the 
ratio of the population engaged in agriculture to those engaged 
in several other gainful occupations. It is in this respect that 
our agricultural organization in the United States has in my 
judgment been of the most profound benefit. In 1870 forty- 
seven per cent of the working population was engaged in agri- 
culture. In 1910 this ratio had been reduced to a little more 
than thirty-two per cent. During this period the percentage of 
population in manufactures and mechanical arts, in trade and 
transportation, and in professional services has increased in prac- 
tically the same proportion that agriculture has decreased. In 
brief, the institutions for the promotion of agricultural education 
and research in this country have brought about an equitable 
distribution of the population engaged in gainful occupations, 
and as a consequence of this distribution the country has become 
more and more established in its physical and material well 
being; and I assert that it could not have achieved this high 
standard of success except through our institutions of agriculture. 
These institutions have made it possible to produce a larger 
quantity of food per unit of labor than could have been done 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 501 

without them. At the present time every farmer in this country- 
is producing enough food for himself and four others. In China 
the ratio is almost reversed, and even then the country is not 
free from sections which frequently suffer from starvation. I 
say these things not in disparagement of what has already been 
done and is being done in that worthy country, but rather in the 
hope of stimulating a deeper interest in the importance of agri- 
culture to a nation's welfare. 

I trust that the experiences of this country in this respect 
may not be without significance to our neighbors bordering upon 
the Pacific. 



502 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 

SIXTH SESSION 

Chairman, Henry Rand Hatfield, Ph.D. 

Professor of Accounting, Dean of the College of Commerce, Dean of 
the Faculties, University of California 

ASPECTS OF TRADE AND COMMERCE 

The chairman : This is an age of specialization. People are 
working each at a few things instead of each at many things, 
and that means the necessity for trade. It means that the things 
which have been produced must be exchanged, not only between 
individuals but between nations. When the committee in charge 
of the Conference on International Relations surveyed the fields 
it wished to have discussed it could find nothing which seemed 
of more fundamental importance than this matter of trade ; for 
the trade between nations necessitates the most rapid and con- 
stant contact between nations. It gives occasion for the greatest 
understanding, and sometimes, unfortunately, for the greatest 
misunderstandings. In this matter of trade San Francisco, 
possessing the great harbor of the Pacific Coast, is destined to 
take the lead in the "West, and, in fact, is already doing so. The 
San Francisco Chamber of Commerce is intimately associated 
with the work of the city, and Mr. Koster, who is to speak to 
you today, is associated with the San Francisco Chamber of 
Commerce, and in a large measure directs its work. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS r)03 



INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS OF TRADE AND 
COMMERCE 

Mr. Frederick J, Koster 

President of the San Francisco Chamber of Commerce 

I must confess it is with some trepidation that I arise to 
address an audience of this character, and particularly on so 
big a subject, and under such circumstances, too, as are bringing 
you together here at this great University. 

This, as I understand it, is a Conference on International 
Relations of the Countries bordering on the Pacific, and I am 
to discuss International Aspects of Trade and Commerce. I 
doubt if in this period of the world's turmoil we can consider 
the question in relation to the countries bordering on the Pacific 
apart from the whole world's problem of international relations. 
While I shall touch upon it from the standpoint of its bearing 
upon the relations of the nations bordering upon the Pacific, I 
prefer to treat the subject more broadly and generally. It would 
seem to me futile at this time to undertake to discuss these 
questions at all, excepting in the light of the stupendous struggle 
which is now in progress. 

Today there is before us a most impressive evidence of the 
need for a clearer understanding of the significance of inter- 
national trade and commerce. A very large proportion of the 
entire human race is aroused to the point where practically 
every interest is subordinated to the considerations which the 
war imposes. A condition exists which must be faced. There 
is no avoiding it, and it is the part of statesmanship and of in- 
telligence to study it and to endeavor to understand it. It is 
today the preeminent phase of international relations. The 
whole world is affected ; and there is not a single strand of the 
great fabric of international intercourse which is not sensitive 
to its influence. The war is paramountly a conflict of ideals; 
a struggle over ideals that are to govern the relationship of 
peoples in the serving of their interests through the channels of 
trade and commerce. There is before us in this struggle the 



504 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

most striking evidence of the imperative need for a deeper under- 
standing of this whole big question of international trade and 
commerce, so as to avert in the future a like cataclysm, unless 
we are prepared to accept it as necessary to the health of the 
race that there should be a periodical slaughter of multitudes, 
and that a compensating impulse forward results from the strain 
imposed upon humanity by the tremendous necessities involved 
in the conduct of such a war. In the light of knowledge and 
experience, that can never be conceded by those of intelligence 
upon whose leadership the world of mankind must depend for its 
progress. Throughout the world in nearly every sphere of activity 
there is constantly being demonstrated the imperative need for 
cooperation, and organization for cooperative effort is found es- 
sential to the successful prosecution of practically every import- 
ant work. "When every tendency on the part of comparatively 
smaller groups is toward the elimination of friction, in order 
effectively to cope with their tasks, surely there can be no sanc- 
tion of destructive strife among any of the larger groupings of 
the human family ; unless perhaps we grant that for the time it 
shall stand forth as a glaring example of the enormity of its 
futility. 

In the transactions occurring in the ordinary course of trade 
or business it is beginning to be more and more definitely ap- 
preciated by intelligent men of commerce that the first essential 
to success is that benefit must be mutual. It is no mere figure 
of speech that service is the foundation upon which successful 
business establishments are built, and enduring prosperity fos- 
tered. Realizing this fundamental fact, far-sighted business men 
and business institutions are banding themselves together in 
commercial organizations, through which they are to gather in- 
formation, provide facilities, and bring to bear influences which 
are beyond the capacity of the individual or single establishment. 
Through them they bring about interchange of thought and ex- 
perience, and through them they provide general information to 
be placed at the disposal of all who may desire to take advantage 
of it. In this way there is created a more widespread interest, 
and thus a more thorough understanding of what trade and 
commerce really signify in the human scheme of things. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 505 

Every business transaction, every movement of commerce must 
in the nature of things be either constructive or destructive. 
The whole tendency of modern business is to see that every step 
is taken as far as possible upon a basis of ascertained fact ; and 
that each step be in the nature of a contribution to the sum 
total of that which meets human necessity or requirement. 

The war is throwing an intense light upon every phase of 
international relationships, and we are actually being forced 
back to a consideration of the simple essential facts of existence. 
It is unravelling for us many complexities, and converting the 
term cooperation from a mere catch word into a reality. 

Today we of America are bending every energy toward win- 
ning success in a struggle not for the securing of any special 
advantage, any gain for ourselves, but so that there may not 
again in the future be visited upon us the penalty of war ; and 
that penalty, I take it, will be avoided in proportion as we ex- 
ercise wisdom in the establishment of international relations in 
their bearing upon the foundations of our trade and commerce 
abroad and the methods by which we seek to develop these. The 
present world war evidences a condition growing out of inter- 
national relations established upon an unsound basis, and it is 
a fearful price to pay for any temporary prosperity and sup- 
posed advantage. 

"War, such as this, is in itself evidence of an accumulation 
of unsound situations, which make war a necessary counteracting 
influence. Thus the best way for an intelligent people to war 
upon war is to so develop their international trade and com- 
merce and their relations with other peoples as to avoid the 
causes for war. 

As in the transactions between private parties, mutuality of 
interest and advantage is essential to permanency of harmonious 
relationship, so that same principle must apply to the sum total 
of those private transactions which make up the substance of 
international trade and commerce. Our nation in the light of 
the position it has taken in the present world turmoil must 
accept an especial responsibility in setting the standard to the 
world as to policy for the development of international relations 
through the practical channels of trade and commerce. Cer- 
tainly a great obligation in this particular rests upon that people 



506 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

which as a nation may with some justice claim to have attained 
to the highest position of enlightenment, even if not the most 
effective organization, in the present stage of the world's civil- 
ization. This is true especially of a people so situated that it 
has at its disposal within the boundaries of the territory it 
occupies such an abundance of natural resources as to render 
simple its own internal problems as to its ability to care for its 
own population 's immediate needs, and to be relieved of anxiety 
as to meeting the requirements of a growing population. It 
cannot be gainsaid that there is demanded of a people so situated 
an especial attitude of generosity and broad vision toward the 
whole subject of international relations. 

The war has brought us a realization of the world's inter- 
dependence. Its stupendous magnitude has demanded not only 
a scientific preparation to meet its imperious needs but a most 
remarkable degree of practical cooperative effort on the part of 
the various groups arrayed on either side of the conflict. It 
has also demanded a thorough study of its causes and of the 
actualities concerning international relationships, as they have 
been and as they may be expected to become. We begin to 
realize how important for the future it is that the various ele- 
ments of the human race be closely knit together, to the end 
that there may be a definite step taken in the direction of the 
more intelligent use of the world's resources in the interest of 
all. We must insist that no single group or nation can longer 
thrive at the expense of any other group, or profit itself by the 
destruction of any group, except only in so far as the latter 
might constitute a selfish element of retardation standing in the 
path of general human progress. 

Willy-nilly we are being brought together into one great co- 
operative effort for the exercise of power to the end that freedom 
of international intercourse may be maintained. Can we do less, 
having succeeded in that, than to formulate a policy and create 
an attitude which will tend to make that condition permanent? 
True statesmanship today involves a full recognition of the 
world's interdependence, and of so regulating national affairs 
as to form a definite contribution for the world's benefit rather 
than for national selfish advantage. 

This is no time for consideration of world affairs through 
the cloudy atmosphere of prejudice. Never was there such need 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 507 

for dispassionate consideration, sound understanding, and clear 
vision. The war has universally quickened the spirit of the dull 
mass of humanity. It has taught remarkable lessons in organ- 
ization, and the cooperation of humanity in the utilization of 
resources, as well as an appreciation of the value of hitherto 
undeveloped resources ; and even the slumbering millions of the 
Orient seem to have been somewhat aroused. 

Here upon the Pacific Coast of the United States of America 
we realize that there rest some of our country's great reserve 
stores of natural resources. The war necessities are bringing 
some of them into considerable prominence. Industry here is 
being stimulated and population is increasing. And while we 
realize that there are before us great opportunities to the north 
and to the south on our own side of the Pacific, our interest 
now centers most definitely upon the problems of international 
intercourse facing us from across the Pacific. We seem to sense 
rather than realize what an awakening is taking place there. 
We know that there are across the Pacific millions of human 
beings with remarkable qualities; that there is dearth of ma- 
terials and equipment for making the most of resources and 
opportunities. We realize in part that we have to deal with the 
hard facts of an ancient historic background of ideals and ten- 
dencies strongly at variance with our own. That there is a 
problem, there can be no question. That there is vast oppor- 
tunity, there can be no doubt. In order to avail ourselves of 
that opportunity to the utmost, we must be prepared to solve 
the problem in the light of sympathy and understanding, in an 
attitude of patience to the exclusion of prejudice. 

The main thought I would leave with you, in the light of the 
great events now transpiring, and their impressive lessons, is 
that the aU important consideration is the attitude in which we 
approach our problem of developing international relations 
through the practical channels of trade and commerce. It is 
futile in the face of the great fact before us to consider this ques- 
tion from the narrow standpoint of our own special advantage 
and narrow selfish interest. 

No nation can hope to succeed in an attempt to create a 
condition whereby it may progress without regard for the aspir- 
ations of other peoples ; it matters not whether those aspirations 



508 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

grow out of pure necessity, or are born of a sense of superior 
ability to utilize more advantageously natural resources and 
opportunities. No nation can continue to defend the mainten- 
ance of an extravagant standard of living based upon the lavish 
and uneconomic use of natural resources, in the face of world 
necessity and while other peoples are confined within narrow 
territorial limits whose resources, even when most efficiently and 
economically used, are inadequate to the necessities of an expand- 
ing population. 

The position taken by our nation as expressed through the 
broad statesmanship of our President has placed upon us a 
grave responsibility of leadership in world ajffairs. The policy 
which our President has declared we are now preparing our- 
selves rapidly to make effective. We are standing before the 
world upon very high ground. We must practically set the 
standard as to the attitude in which the development of inter- 
national relations shall be conducted. 

The world's interest is rapidly centering upon the Pacific 
area. We of the western part of the United States particularly 
are deeply interested in the progress of events directly across 
the Pacific. Dominant among the Oriental peoples, unquestion- 
ably, is Japan. Japan is a compact nation with a homogeneous 
people. She has demonstrated a wonderful capacity for organi- 
zation, and she is attacking her economic and social problems 
scientifically. It is of the utmost importance to the future of 
civilization, that these two peoples which occupy such high posi- 
tions of leadership among the nations should approach their 
problems in the most sympathetic spirit, a spirit of mutual con- 
sideration and understanding. 

Japan has exihibted rare tact in her dealings with us. And 
certainly we of the western coast of the United States cannot 
fail to applaud her statesman-like treatment of every delicate 
situation which from time to time has arisen, largely because of 
the difficulty of overcoming at once those racial differences de- 
veloped through generations of separation. 

For the future of mankind it is the duty of nations to foster 
international intercourse. Governments should take positive 
action tending to stimulate enterprise on the part of their citizens 
in this direction. They must emphasize the development of inter- 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL EELATIONS 509 

national trade and commerce as a definite policy for the value 
of its civilizing and stabilizing influence. It is the especial duty 
of a government to guide its citizens toward world competition on 
a sound economic basis, to aid them in every possible way to- 
wards greater efficiency; but the government must frown down 
upon every effort to secure special advantages, and it must not 
bolster up business by the creation of fictitious conditions nor 
through a display of force; or by doing any of those things 
which can only result in an accumulation of international antag- 
onisms which will ultimately invite retaliation by force and a 
recurrence of such a situation as we are facing today. 

Intelligence must dominate. The same principles which gov- 
ern the transactions between intelligent individuals must be made 
to apply in international trade and commerce ; and it is the duty 
of intelligent citizens to address their efforts positively in this 
direction. We must cease preaching the doctrine of localism 
and narrow selfish nationalism. Let us undertake to inculcate 
that attitude which will secure for us a place in the sun through 
what we confer upon mankind rather than through emphasis of 
our own immediate selfish interests. 



510 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 



ADDRESS OF MR. ROBERT NEWTON LYNCH 

of the San Francisco Chamber of Commerce 

The chairman : The next speaker will be Mr. Lynch of the 
San Francisco Chamber of Commerce. 

Mr. LYNCH: Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen: You 
have been good enough to invite several business men of San 
Francisco to discuss the question of international relations in 
commerce. It was in my mind to express diffidence in entering 
into a university atmosphere with only the vernacular of trade. 
The paper, however, which has just been presented by the Presi- 
dent of the Chamber of Commerce discusses the subject in keep- 
ing, I am sure, with the best canons of university taste. With- 
out wasting any time, therefore, in apologies for bringing the 
practical experience of a large city on this question, I will im- 
mediately bring to you the only contribution which may be 
helpful, that of the practical administration of foreign trade 
problems as viewed by a large commercial organization located 
at a world port. 

San Francisco is located at one of the cross-roads of the world. 
Any study of the problems of this great harbor indicates that 
the development of San Francisco as a world city depends upon 
two things: first, the development of the agricultural resources 
of the Pacific Coast ; second, the development of commerce be- 
yond the seas. Therefore, international contacts and relations 
are of paramount importance. Foreign trade, however, is a 
matter of national concern. No successful attempt could be 
made to develop trade beyond the seas without an aggressive 
national policy. Heretofore the United States has spent its main 
strength in developing internal resources. World events have 
now forced this country into a full realization of its international 
responsibilities and opportunities. The policy of the country has 
frowned on aggregations and combinations of capital in the 
industrial life which threatened private monopoly. It so hap- 
pens that the very aggregations of capital so discouraged are the 
very instruments for efficient world trade. It takes big business 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 511 

to get world markets. This national discouragement has been in 
sharp contrast to the policies of other countries ; but the present 
war has measurably demonstrated the fact that economic nation- 
alism may be an evil, and it may ultimately be shown that the 
policy of the United States in the proper regulation of industry 
may be truer in instinct in the future freedom of trade and the 
untrammeling of the artificial bonds around national commerce. 
It now seems that commerce, like religion, will ultimately refuse 
to be stated in national terms. Therefore, the paper which has 
just been presented, which takes such a broad position for future 
international commerce, has accurately stated the beginning of a 
great world movement in commerce, which will make commerce 
the guarantee of peace rather than the inciting cause of world 
war. 



512 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY 



ADDRESS OF MR. JOHN R. ROSSITER 

of the W. E. Grace & Co. of San Francisco 

The chairman : The next speaker will be Mr. John R. Ros- 
siter of W. R. Grace & Co., San Francisco. 

Mb. ROSSITER: Ladies and Gentlemen: In his opening state- 
ment Mr. Lynch well described my misgivings ; therefore, I trust 
that you will be patient and make due allowance for my lim- 
itations. 

In listening to the very interesting article read by our good 
friend Mr. Koster I became even more embarrassed than at the 
outset, if that were possible, because it seemed so impossible to 
lead to any point that would compare at all with his article. 
However, commerce is my business and foreign commerce is 
my daily work, and if there is one thing that I ought to bring 
particularly to your attention it is this. Foreign commerce in 
its character today is a creature of extraordinary evolution. 

At the beginning foreign commerce was a matter of the 
merchant journeying from port to port, embarking on the ship 
with his pack or goods. He sold and he bought, and returning 
to his home renewed the operation of exchanging his wares. By 
slow stages came the commerce we all understand, or commerce 
as I think it is generally understood. Now I would lead your 
attention to the developments of the past few years, and par- 
ticularly the last year, which have come to be deciding factors 
in such enterprise. 

In our time foreign commerce has been regarded as the busi- 
ness to be secured by representatives sent with catalogues, sam- 
ples, or conversation, to secure orders ; and in that endeavor the 
little and the big merchant were practically on an equality. 

As trade grew in importance and volume advantages came 
to large operators, and particularly to those who handle imports 
as well as exports. In other words, to attempt one side of the 
operation, such as manufacturers undertaking to market their 
products in foreign markets, as against firms or corporations 
handling both import and export, you will readily appreciate the 



CONFEEENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 513 

disadvantage of such a one-sided trade. Thus came the merchant 
equipped to handle various articles of manufacture and in turn 
deal with imports. Among other considerations involved is the 
matter of exchange or settlement of invoices. The percentage 
or fraction of exchange would seem of small importance. When 
the business extended to six figures and beyond, that little frac- 
tion ofttimes had a deciding influence. And in the trade with 
many foreign countries it was of special importance because of 
limited banking facilities and difficulty of securing bills of 
exchange. 

Again, there are certain manufacturing enterprises having 
the advantage of an exchange in trade with certain countries. 
I might illustrate by the automobile manufacturer, especially in 
his trade with tropical countries, such as the Straits Settle- 
ments, where rubber is produced; and, as you know, rubber is 
a large item in the automobile industry. Large automobile manu- 
facturers can seek with special advantage the marketing of their 
machines in countries where rubber is produced. 

At all times, but especially since the development of steamer 
service, great advantages rested with nations and sea ports hav- 
ing the opportunity of frequent and regular ocean shipment. 
In this respect we of the United States have been under serious 
handicap during the entire period of the greatest development 
of foreign commerce, namely, during the past thirty years. Our 
mercantile marine in the days of clipper ships held the leading 
place among the nations, but, with the development of propul- 
sion by steam, we slipped back to the very end of the list. As a 
national policy we stood stubbornly and, I must add, stupidly 
against encouragement of maritime enterprise under our flag; 
and this at a time when all European countries were given sub- 
sidies and other forms of encouragement for the establishment 
of regular steamer lines to foreign ports. As a result, London, 
Hamburg, Rotterdam, and Genoa built up their great Oriental 
trade under the advantages flowing to the dual business of ex- 
porting and importing, and their manufacturers were enabled 
to send their goods on the ships going to the Indies to bring back 
products of the tropics. 

This commerce of the Orient runs to figures not realized or 
understood in this country except by those who have studied or 



514 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

specialized in it. It reaches figures beyond any foreign trade 
the United States has known. It is true that our foreign trade 
has been at once the wonder and the envy of all other nations, but 
that rested on our great advantages of agricultural and mineral 
wealth. Thus we have been enabled to send to many foreign 
countries grain and flour, lumber and steel. However, there 
have been certain markets to which we have practically never 
sent the very things in the production of which we enjoy such 
natural advantages. And ivhyf It is the old proposition of 
reciprocal trade and the limitations of our shipping. Thus steel, 
purchased by Japan, was supplied by Germany prior to 1914. 
Ships were taking out to the Orient articles of German manu- 
facture including steel, coke, and numerous other articles which 
we were manufacturing to equal or better advantage, and these 
ships were returning with products of the Orient to Hamburg 
and Bremen, including rice, spices, wood, vegetable oils, and such 
commodities. At the same time other European countries, nota- 
bly England, France, Holland, and Italy, with regular steamer 
lines, were likewise enjoying trade in products going and coming 
in their ships. Engrossed in the development of natural re- 
sources and the upbuilding of our own country, we were unmind- 
ful or careless of our foreign commerce. At the outbreak of 
the war our foreign steamer lines could be counted on the fingers 
of one hand and, practically speaking, were limited to three 
regular lines. With the exception of oil tankers, we had no 
steamer service to the Indies, and the very small percentage of 
that trade falling to our lot had to move by way of trans-ship- 
ment at Hong Kong. 

I once heard a speaker very aptly describe foreign commerce, 
in its inception and strength, as the interchange of commodities 
between the distant shores of an ocean. Thus the products of 
the Orient and the products of the Pacific Coast should naturally 
be exchanged across that great ocean washing both shores. I 
said that should naturally be the course ; but it was not so. The 
products of the Indies move by the Suez Canal, figuratively and 
actually an artificial channel. As a result, when a San Francisco 
merchant would buy rice grown in Siam, or pepper or tea from 
Colombo, generally speaking he would receive it from Hamburg 
or London. That was absolutely and always the case with rubber 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 5jr> 

produced in Singapore and the Straits Settlements, although 
nearly fifty per cent of the demand for this article was at Akron, 
Ohio; and today the United States is consuming over seventy 
per cent of the world's production of rubber. War suddenly 
changed these conditions. The appearance of a "U" boat in 
the Mediterranean during the latter part of 1915, followed by 
loss of a great number of ships, practically closed the Suez Canal. 
The voyage via Cape of Good Hope was long and costly, with 
the danger of destruction by submarine in the North Atlantic. 
As a result, rubber, tea, spices, and rice for consumption in the 
United States returned to the natural channel — the route they 
should always have traveled — across the Pacific. With the press- 
ing need of ships for trans- Atlantic service, the development to 
anything like the possibilities must wait until the war is over. 

There is, I believe and hope, an awakening in this country 
to the importance of encouraging and developing our mercantile 
marine. Today we are looking to foreign commerce with a new 
interest and higher expectations. I would point out to you, 
therefore, the importance of a new and definite national policy; 
we must encourage shipping and have reciprocal arrangements 
and agreements to bulwark our foreign commerce. 

At the outset I spoke of the complications that had come 
into foreign commerce during the past few years and I enum- 
erated several of them. The latest and most far-reaching 
phase is that of the black-list and license. As a matter of self- 
preservation the dealings of the enemy had to be stamped out. 
The effective agency was the black-list. It has introduced many 
a complication and has brought many an advantage to us. It 
is also charged with great possibilities in the influence of trade 
after the war. It seems to point to national compacts to direct 
and regulate trade, and this must certainly be exercised by 
Great Britain and her colonies as a matter of self-preservation 
and necessity. 

We have been prone to flatter ourselves on the thorough and 
capable way in which we handle business. Of one thing I am 
sure, judging by my life's work and experience in foreign com- 
merce, namely, that, on the ending of the war, without govern- 
ment aid and practical encouragement of shipping and the sup- 
port and upholding of the merchant we might as well stop talking 



516 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

about the capture of foreign trade. We must not only build 
ships, but we must build the right sort of ships, which we are 
not doing at present. Great emphasis is to be placed on that. 
If we go about it in the right way, American skill and enterprise 
can be relied upon to accomplish the wonderful results which 
are possible in that respect. Also we must encourage a chain 
of American banks in foreign countries. And this opens a field 
of wonderful opportunity to our young men. At this time we 
are practically without men skilled in foreign banking, such as 
the British, French, and in the past the G-ermans have had, and 
into which field the Japanese have entered with vigor and de- 
termination. 

We have heard much about trusts and big corporations and 
the importance of breaking them up. I would not enter on such 
a discussion at this time. No doubt there have been abuses and 
need of sensible regulation. However, it is a dangerous thing 
for the Government to attempt to encroach too far on private 
enterprise. Regulation is wholesome and occasionally necessary, 
but on no account should we throttle personal endeavor, or set 
harmful limitations on enterprises in which skill and combination 
of facilities makes the individual especially equipped for the 
development. 

We can always return to our trade in our natural wealth 
such as iron, copper, cotton, and grain, and we can continue to 
sell it abroad as in the past. Such trade cannot be taken from 
US; but if we aim, as Mr. Koster says, to find our place in the 
sun, then we must have a definite and firm national policy with 
respect to foreign trade. The merchant who would trade abroad 
must have ships. You have heard the saying that "Commerce 
follows the flag." That is certain and true when the flag is 
traveling a regular route to a foreign shore and returning to our 
shore. 

Today, through the foresight of our friends in Japan, through 
the wisdom of providing ships for its nationals, the Japanese 
merchant has come to a position of preponderance in the domestic 
trade of the United States so far as it relates to articles of 
tropical origin. I repeat and impress upon you that I refer to 
their importance in our domestic trade ; and the reason or cause 
of this is that Japan has the ships and its merchants have the 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 517 

space in the ships, so naturally they handle imports with special 
advantage, and onr merchants find it of profit to buy from them. 
This is as unnatural as it would be for American firms to again 
enter the domestic trade of Japan, which they at one time en- 
joyed but have since forfeited because of the fact that the Japan- 
ese merchant is now best able, and naturally so, to handle that 
trade. 

Now I want it to be understood very distinctly that when 
speaking of the Japanese influence in domestic trade I speak of 
that accomplishment with no other feeling than one of admiration. 
I do not want to be misunderstood or misconstrued in bringing 
forward this question of Japan. During the years of my deal- 
ings with Japanese the trades have invariably been concluded 
to mutual satisfaction. I have visited Japan and enjoyed its 
scenery and the hospitality of its people. I have a high estimate 
of their character and ability. The point I would make is: 
why do we not emulate the example of the Japanese in the 
encouragement of shipping and gain the advantages afforded its 
merchants in foreign trade. Let us do as they have done. That 
is the lesson I would urge upon your attention and for your 
interest. 



518 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 



ADDRESS OF MR. KASAI 

Mr. KASAI: Ladies and Gentlemen: Having listened to such 
eloquent addresses in expression of San Francisco's and the 
American foreign policy of trade, I should like to voice some 
sentiments for Japan. 

Japan has been enjoying her trade with the United States. 
You are the largest customer we have. Next to your trade comes 
our Chinese trade. For instance, when a Japanese arises in 
the morning he arises from a bed made from American sheets, 
of American cotton from Texas; he may eat grapefruit from 
California. He may enjoy salmon from the Columbia River. 
He may at night go on the streets lit with lamps coming from 
Schenectady or Pittsburg, and then he may go traveling on the 
railroad built with American steel rails from Pittsburg or 
Schenectady or Chicago or San Francisco, and on Pullman cars 
drawn by Baldwin engines. On the other hand, he feels the 
largest share of Japan's export to the United States is raw silk. 
You have placed on the manufacture of silk from sixty to a 
hundred per cent, then you have put one hundred and twenty 
per cent tariff, so we could not with profit send Japanese silk 
to your shore ; whereas, you are permitting raw silk to come to 
your country free, and you turned it into silk. Today, I under- 
stand, ninety per cent of the silk coming into the United States 
comes from Japan. Thus we are bound to be friends, bound 
by even so delicate a bond as a strand of silk ; yet we are bound 
so strong in our ties of friendship. Of late, however, we have 
heard so much that there might come a clash between Japanese 
interests and American interests, not only in Japan but also in 
China. This, however, can be avoided, and we of Japan have 
been trying most earnestly to avoid any clash that might come. 
Instead of it we are trying to establish cooperation by which 
America and Japan can share equally in China's trade for the 
benefit of the three countries concerned: namely, China herself, 
Japan, and the United States. 

If such an understanding should come, if the combination of 
American and Japanese capital can be accomplished, it would 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 519 

indeed be a happy means of bringing about a better understand- 
ing between our two nations. On the other hand, I was very 
happy to hear that one of our Japanese scientists passing through 
here and going to Japan tried to encourage the Japanese finan- 
ciers to invest in your land. For instance, very many commis- 
sions come to the United States. Many members of commissions 
were talked to or were advised by the interests of your country ; 
these Japanese financiers were asked to invest in your country. 
As you know, we have today in America a great many millions 
of dollars of gold. We are contributing to your country; we 
are getting from you steel plates, machinery, and cotton; but 
by your order of August 10, 1917, there came the embargo on 
steel. Japanese shipyards are suffering. "We have bought steel 
from you, but we cannot export to Japan. Moreover, on the 
top of it, you have placed an embargo on gold today. It is very 
difficult, therefore, for us to conduct business; yet we can do 
business, but not so readily as we did last year. As a result of 
it there is a pile of gold in New York City, perhaps in the Chase 
National Bank or in the American National City Bank of New 
York, and this gold must be invested somewhere. "We have been 
buying allied bonds. Japan bought fifty million dollars of Brit- 
ish bonds and twenty-five million dollars French bonds, and so 
on. This has to be disposed of in some way, and it seems to me 
we can work together with your cooperation. 

Two weeks ago I heard a San Francisco man attacking one 
of our Japanese firms, saying, you are taking advantage of our 
trade. But today I was so happy to hear the words coming 
from the president of the San Francisco Chamber of Commerce, 
who is also a leading business man of San Francisco, saying 
this: that in order to foster American trade in the Orient you 
must have cooperation with your buyers and your sellers. 

In conclusion, may I say in business there is some sentiment ; 
we are pretty sure that if there are many sellers we will neces- 
sarily buy from the seller who is friendly to the buyer. In this? 
regard the city of Seattle has been using this opportunity. There 
has been a great deal of understanding between Japanese busi- 
ness men and Seattle business men. In saying that I do not 
mean to say anything about the attitude of San Francisco's 
business men toward Japan, for they have been nothing but 



520 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

friendly to our country; but, as Mr. Rossiter said, in our inter- 
national trade between Japan and the United States the first 
thing we need is ships. There are many more ships going be- 
tween Seattle and Yokohama and between Seattle and Kobe 
and the volume of trade passing through Seatle has been greater 
in the past two years than through San Francisco. 

Let us, my friends, cooperate, so that that trade of the 
Pacific will grow in the future. Japan before the war was 
buying from Germany and England. When the war came we 
came to the United States to buy your steel plates. Thus it 
seems to me, my friends, I have reason for great faith. It 
would be nice to buy your steel plates if you could sell them 
to us, but you have placed embargoes, and many Japanese men 
are eager to buy. 

As Mr. Rossiter said, trade is mutual. If we have to sell to 
you, we must buy from you. Therefore, I hope we can conduct 
business with confidence. There is the story that you have heard 
so many times : that the Japanese are so dishonest that they can- 
not trust their own countrymen, and employ Chinese as cashiers 
in their banks. The age of such myths has already passed. The 
Japanese are doing business and you can trust them. You can 
buy good things from the Japanese, and they will try to sell you 
good things. 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 521 



CONFEEENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 

SEVENTH SESSION 

Chmrman, Alexis F. Lange, A.M., Ph.D. 

Professor of the Theory and Practice of Education and Director of the 

School of Education. 

PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION 

The CHAIRMAN: Ladies and Gentlemen: "Lest we forget," 
the nation is at war for peace, for a peace born of justice and 
good will to man, a world peace if possible, with a promise of 
outlasting many of the generations to come. But again, ''lest 
we forget," ovlj education can make even such a peace worth 
fighting for. The triumph of right over might proves barren, 
national self-direction, and progress, individual or collective, 
remain pious wishes unless mankind can achieve, along with 
peace, the greatest preparedness of the greatest number for 
peace. And the keenest international competition in this respect 
necessarily means and makes for the completest international 
cooperation. 

Now, the University of California could hardly be true to 
itself as a national and as an international institution if she 
celebrated her fiftieth birthday in a small, provincial spirit, if 
she did not try to turn this occasion into an opportunity; an 
opportunity for taking thought about education as a world in- 
terest, an opportunity for looking forward along the lines pro- 
jected through the past and through the stormful present, an 
opportunity for exemplifying the sound, educational maxim, in 
time of war prepare for the time when the war shall have been 
won. To be sure, only those endowed with second sight could 
possibly visualize the legacy of ugly facts that the war will leave 
behind, or the new routes of advance, or the new types of private 
and public conduct required to make democracy safe at home 
and progressive. But surely we can, if we will, discern in the 
shadows of coming events the kinds of tasks that will have to be 
shouldered. We can, by taking counsel, promote all that pre- 
paredness, individual and national, for peace implies such things 



322 UNIFEBSITT OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

as a surplus of vital force, enlightened and upright purposes^ 
intelligent and trained adaptability for doing the world work, 
and habitual cooperation for the common good. With such gen- 
eral considerations in the background, I introduce, and it is a 
privilege to do so, a speaker whose name is all the introduction 
he needs, President Suzzallo, of the University of Washington. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 523 



EDUCATION AFTER THE WAR 
Henry Suzzallo, A.M., Ph.D. 

President of the University of Washington 

The inability of civilization to save itself from the present tragic 
conflict is a serious criticism of the organization of civilization 
itself. We have war because the world has not character enough 
to settle its differences of ambition or aspiration on any higher 
plane than that of coercion and force. And when we say it has 
not adequate character we do not overlook the fact that an over- 
whelming majority of the individuals of all nations have sound 
moral beliefs and intentions. We mean merely to call attention 
to the paradoxical truth that the potential character which 
humanity possesses because of the moral decency of most of its 
individual members is not well enough organized to give practical 
group effectiveness to its moral ideals and enthusiasms. 

We shall not gain peace and a continuously kindly relation 
among the nations of the world until we have rightly developed 
and organized national character. And national character is a 
matter of education in the broadest sense. The required educa- 
tion of national character will come partly through the schools 
and colleges, but the training of educational institutions will not 
suffice. In the making of a worthy national character we must 
utilize all the agencies which modify men's opinions and atti- 
tudes: the schools and the colleges, the press and the literature 
of the nation, the moving-picture and the public lecture platform, 
the influence of responsible and courageous personalities, and 
the unifying power of our party organizations. 

I have deliberately stressed national character rather than 
international character. The foundation of national character 
is in the character of its constituent members ; likewise any world 
democracy depends upon the moral qualities of the national 
units which constitute it. The first step in organizing a sound 
internationalism is to make nations considerate of each other. 

It is useless to talk about any internationalism that is an 
attempt at direct fusion of all the individuals of the world. 



524 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

Such a fusion is unnatural and cannot succeed. There must be 
intermediary structures to bridge the wide gap between indi- 
vidual and local interests and those of the whole world. The one 
serious attempt at the internationalization of individuals — that 
of international socialism — failed us completely at the hour of 
crisis. It merely weakened national loyalty and power and set 
up class hate. Better a true democracy of all the people within 
a small geographical unit than a worldwide class internationalism 
intensifying suspicion of one's fellows in the same village. 
Democraej^ literally begins at home, and then extends itself to 
our more distant neighbors. Where spontaneous affection for 
our fellows gives out, the principles of fair play and kindliness, 
operating under political agreement and social organization, takes 
its place. The latter, however, have their origin in the former. 
The larger group life is made possible by the extension of feelings 
of mutual tolerance and regard which are born in the intimate 
life of small groups. 

Precisely as nations are made strong through the strengthen- 
ing of individual and family life, an effective internationalism 
may be best achieved through the development of strong national 
units broad enough in sympathy to be fair to each other. We 
do not need less nationalism but more of the right kind. As the 
individual should regard his organized mentality and his per- 
sonal character as the instruments of larger service, the nation 
should likewise consider itself a carrier of civilization to the 
world at large and to posterity. The nation that merely serves 
its own ends and exploits others is not a real nation in a strict 
moral sense, uny more than a thoroughly selfish individual is a 
real and successful person. There can be no worthy democratic 
internationalism save as it is finally constituted of groups sin- 
cerely democratic in spirit. Those nations which are most 
democratic in their internal life have been most unselfish in their 
practice of diplomacy. 

If democratic peoples are the best units out of which a world 
democracy is ultimately to be erected, these democracies must be 
efficient enough to endure. The idealism which cannot maintain 
its own organized life is a mere dream. Democracies must be 
made efficient. The requisite efficiency for self-protection is of 
two sorts. That social group which synthesizes the largest num- 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL RELATIONS 525 

ber of fundamental human interests is most likely to command 
human loyalty and to endure against the tendency toward inner 
dissolution. Likewise that republic which carries with it the 
appreciation and the love of its members will be most able to 
exact the human sacrifices necessary for defense against external 
forces. Every democratic government must be capable of resist- 
ing with might those nations of lower moral code which are likely 
to override superior righteousness with well organized force. 

This is the reply to that false and weak pacifism which made 
our nation temporarily feeble. A thing worth having is worth 
defending. The superior spiritual possessions are not got and 
held by weaklings; they are gained and perpetuated by virile 
men and women. One may have a conscientious objection to most 
wars ; but to bear that attitude toward all warfare regardless of 
what may be at stake, is, when the doctrine is worked out to its 
final consequences, to bear a conscientious objection to the realiza- 
tion of righteousness itself. Conscience operating in this manner 
is destructive of its own ends. 

If these doctrines of a right nationalism, revealed by the 
tragedies and the inefficiencies of our entrance into this war, are 
sound, then, what changes shall we make in our education after 
the war is over? Finally to answer this question requires the 
most persistent discussion of the laws of social life and the 
principles of government by political leaders, journalists, social 
thinkers, and those who write serious books about American 
institutions. On the mature discussions of our best minds, the 
public schools and colleges should formulate a programme of 
training calculated to unify Americans into a nation fitted to be 
a leading spiritual member of the new internationalism which is 
slowly growing. Some elements of that school programme seem 
clear, and these may be suggested. 

I. The common schools must be more definite in aiming at 
the reeducation of men's personal values and social ideals. The 
schools have been strong in providing interesting information but 
lax in establishing standards of valuation. The teachers should 
suggest the right enthusiasms, and exact the right attitudes with 
which good work is done. A few detailed suggestions will 
illustrate : 



526 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

a. Let the child have freedom in finding the information 
and the skill which he needs, but let there be no tolerance on the 
part of the teacher of wrong attitudes of life and work. A task 
given must be performed with the right spirit. On the emotional 
side we need a little iron discipline to accompany the freedom 
we grant on the intellectual side. It is the teacher's business to 
correct errors of attitude as well as errors of fact. The modern 
curriculum, so largely composed of impersonal information, lacks 
the power of the old humanities to induce feeling for the ethical 
and aesthetic values which play a most vigorous part in indi- 
vidual and national life. Even modern literature and history, 
which have potentialities in this direction, are treated in a dehu- 
manized way. 

6. Let the present emphasis on self-realization and the glory 
of competitive victory be shifted, and let us develop a new appre- 
ciation for the service of a whole larger than one's self. The 
colleges are on the right track. They are substituting group 
competition under rules of sportsmanship for the individualistic 
competition which reigns in the common schools. Anything akin 
to the team, club, fraternity, or college loyalty of the American 
university does not exist in considerable degree in the lower 
schools. We must place our American educational individualism 
under the domination of large group loyalties. The spirit of 
service must become the motive for the acquisition and the use 
of personal powers. 

c. Let us restore veneration for principles. A principle of 
right action is abstract and lacking in human appeal as compared 
with sympathy. The American people are the most sympathetic 
in the world, but sympathy unsupervised and unextended by a 
body of principles is only half effective in a social unit as large 
as a nation or a world. We cannot know everyone's condition 
well enough to depend upon the sympathy such knowledge may 
evoke ; but we can deal with the affairs of strangers with approxi- 
mate justice and equity if we follow a code of honorable prin- 
ciples. There is no escape from sovereignty when we move from 
a monarchy to a republic ; we merely pass from the rule of kings 
to the rule of principles. A code of honor rightly drawn and 
devotedly held is better for a nation or a citizen than the 
restricted operations of mere responsive sympathy. We must 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS r,27 

restore the old enthusiasm for principles as rules of human 
conduct. 

II. We must give our students some accurate knowledge as 
to the nature of the American democratic republic. That teaching 
of the elements of the social sciences which we call civics needs 
reconstruction. Think of a hundred men chosen at random. 
How many of them know the relation of constitutional govern- 
ment and majority rule? How many see clearly the distinction 
between the freedom which is political liberty and the freedom 
which is political license? How many sense the proper use of 
force by government? How many recognize that the most suc- 
cessful republics are those which have been most effective in 
organizing the rationality of their citizens ? Our political science 
is still to a considerable degree in the doctrinaire stage, either 
traditional or radical. It needs to be made inductive in spirit 
before the universities can give us the truth to transmit through 
the lower schools. 

We must educate our youth in the extension of democratic 
principles to thought on international affairs. The public 
opinion of the world is now settling international issues without 
that training. The future needs to be safeguarded by a public 
opinion informed upon the varied experiences of international 
contacts. The practical applications of self-determination need 
to be comprehended. A knowledge of less well developed 
peoples should aid in the formulation of reasonable and fair 
principles of colonial government. If we had taught international 
history and civics widely w^e should not now be confused as to the 
ethical and the legal right and wrong of much that has been done 
during this world war. 

III. As a basis for developing principles of international jus- 
tice and organization our courses of study should include treat- 
ments of the customs and institutions of foreign peoples. The 
uninformed and unreflective usually regard what is strikingly 
different from their own usage as something wrong or lower. 
One nation's dislike of another frequently has no other basis than 
the differences between their two sets of institutions. Under- 
standing and consequent tolerance alone will bridge such gaps. 
Already something of the sort is provided in the kindergarten 
and the primary school, and also in the college ; but comparatively 
nothing is provided in the grammar school and the high school. 



528 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTENARY 

Comparative knowledge is broadening. Travel gives it. The 
schools must provide a fair intellectual substitute for travel. 

IV. Let us have more study of the economic facts and laws 
underlying individual, national, and international life. There is 
a large economic basis to all human relations. Without com- 
prehending it, we cannot have an accurate view of human affairs. 
Today ignorant men get their doctrines of economics from others 
equally ignorant because the schools below the university neglect 
economic teaching. The United States suffers greatly today 
because a great part of the foreign population among the labor- 
ing group enter this country with social and political philosophies 
of protest born of economic conditions abroad. These philos- 
ophies preach a "class war" method of settling economic dis- 
putes here, whereas such doctrines have no applicability to 
economic, social, or political conditions in this country. After 
the war some means must be provided for Americanizing the 
foreign born by giving him a true knowledge of economic and 
social fact as it is found in the United States. Then the preach- 
ing of reform by a revolution of force will cease, for the oppor- 
tunities to redress evils in the rational and constitutional Ameri- 
can way wall be understood. 

V. History needs to be restored to a place of large importance 
in education. We cannot be content with teaching a more or less 
isolated American history. The American development is one 
period of history, with a background of English and European 
evolution. A true appreciation of the cost of human progress 
requires far-reaching historical views. Because this appreciation 
is lacking we fall too readily into discontent with present social 
organization. Without the ability to consider the historic cost 
of the political blessings we have, we can compare what we have 
only with some vague idealistic dream of what we think con- 
ditions ought to be. We shall have more men of vision and 
fewer visionaries when historical perspective is more widely 
given. 

VI. We must give our youth, through that fine humanistic 
laboratory, the social life of the school itself, the training in 
leadership and followership which alone can make a democratic 
republic effective. Three things may be learned early in school 
life: 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 529 

a. To know that the democratic life requires a leadership of 
character and brains as much if not more than other forms of 
group government. 

&. To know that a caste leadership — even the caste leadership 
of the intellectual — is inconsistent with a government of the 
people, by the people, and for the people. 

c. To know that ours must be a system of alternate leader- 
ship based upon the readiness of every man with power, small 
or great, to serve fully, and upon the ability of all to appreciate 
expert service in whatever domain it is rendered. 

The college, through its student affairs and activities, has 
already done much to foster a right understanding of American 
alternate leadership and foUowership. More must be done in 
the lower schools. 

VII. The almost disastrous slowness of the democracies in 
defending themselves against the assault of brutal and exploitive 
nations should have taught us, once for all, that republics must 
carry their arms in their hands, ready to protect that institution- 
alized tenderness which is the essence of a spiritual social life. 
Let us have universal military training, without compulsory 
military service save in time of war. The psychology of a highly 
individualized democracy is not fertile ground for militaristic 
impulse. The dangers are slight and the profits great. Once in 
his life the American youth will be made aware of the truth that 
he must stand ready to save all the gifts of his institutional life 
which adult freedom grants him. The by-products of medical 
examination, physical training, sane and systematic living, and 
comradeship under discipline, which follow upon a proper system 
of universal military training, are fruits which cannot be re- 
garded lightly. Already we have learned much about our people 
through stocktaking of the selective service men. The lessons 
should not be in vain. 

VIII. A democratic population must be prosperous to main- 
tain the high standard of living which comes with approximate 
equality of opportunity. To be prosperous in the face of com- 
petition with less humanized nations, a democratic people must 
be more effective in production. The required efficiency demands 
trained industrial leadership, scientific research, and vocational 
training. More research, with university and industry working 



530 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 

hand in hand, is needed. Technical training which has been 
confined largely to the higher schools should be extended into 
the secondary schools, not to take the place of liberal training, 
but to be an addition to it. At the close of the war, our pro- 
gramme for vocational guidance, training and placement will go 
forward with leaps and bounds under the new stimulation of 
caring for the returned service man. The whole public will get 
the benefits sooner or later. 

IX. In these changes of emphasis in education after the war, 
the most important reform of all must not be forgotten : schooling 
must educate men to be rational; man cannot be rational unless 
he has the capacity to think. Somehow, through new modes 
of stimulation, procedure, and control, we must train Americans 
to think. This teaching will be part of every educational activity 
from the kindergarten to the university, in school and out. The 
foundation of the democratic efficiency to which we aspire is the 
use of the experience, intuition, information, thought, and wisdom 
of all men. A true democracy is a whole population cooperatively 
thoughtful. Somehow we have missed making our youth a.s 
thoughtful as they should be. We have been content with infor- 
mation, when it is only the raw material of thought. Where we 
have trained men to reason, we have been content with right 
thinking on neutral academic questions, whereas the real test of 
the ability to think straight comes in hours of crisis when we are 
tempted by self-interest, material or otherwise personal, to select 
the evidences and draw the conclusions which accord with our 
desires and make our case plausible. To the task of making 
democracy rational we must commit ourselves earnestly. In no 
other way than through the teacher can we get the basis for that 
policy of reasoning together which free peoples seek to substitute 
for the arbitrament or arms. 

In this discussion we have merely suggested by way of pre- 
vision some of the changes in education which will probably be 
needed. The actual close of the war will amplify and correct 
these views. No attempt has been made to suggest the technique 
by which the desirable changes are to be brought about. That is 
another and a larger problem. 



CONFERENCE ON INTEBNATIONAL EEL AT IONS 



r,?,] 



ADDRESS OF WILLIAM TRUFANT FOSTER, A.M., Ph.D. 
President of Eeed College 

The chairman : The discussion which now follows need not 
necessarily center about the particular topics dealt with by 
Professor Suzzallo in his address. It may be p.ny of the various 
phases even remotely suggested by our subject, and, so far as 
my experience goes, with discussions following an address, that 
is usually the case anyway, so perhaps my remarks are un- 
necessary. 

President W. T. Foster of Reed College has kindly consented 
to become a contributor. 

President poster: Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen: 
With the high authority of the chairman of the meeting for 
presenting a discussion which has nothing to do with the paper 
if I should desire, I will begin by telling a story, which I in- 
tended to tell you anyway, and then I will show you how I 
happened to be reminded of it by the address. 

I will tell you about an incident that happened near the 
British front in the vicinity of Perrone this fall. I found that 
one of our brave American ambulance boys — and we have many 
of them over there who are doing wonderful work, regardless of 
their ambulances being damaged by shell fire, earning for them- 
selves all along that front from Perrone to Switzerland a repu- 
tation for bravery, courage, and devoted service — I found one 
day while I was there with Major Murphy that a boy from San 
Francisco had just been brought in, dragged through gas, and 
who before that had been lying for many hours bleeding on the 
field in No Man's Land. He was stretched out on the operating 
table and was so weakened from the loss of blood that they did 
not dare to give him an anaesthetic; and they cut off his leg 
and his thumb and one finger. He sat up there on the operating 
table trying to jolly the nurses, and he told the doctor that he 
must not take his thmnb and little finger because he said, "I 
will need them to play golf when I go back to the United States. ' ' 
On this somebody said to the boy, "You had some hard ex- 



532 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOENIA SEMICENTEHiABY 

perience up there." He said, "Oh, we had a few scratches." 
Then the driver of one of those big camions, big camion trucks 
(he was a French driver), got down off his truck and came down 
to us and said: "I should say we did have a few scratches. 
We were up at the big offensive and there were so many killed 
and wounded men, so many men wounded that we did not have 
ambulances enough to take them back, and they loaded them up 
in these big trucks. I got behind the ambulance boys on the way 
back, and we tried to make the cross-roads before four o'clock." 
It seems that some German officer had given a command to shell 
that particular cross-road at four o'clock every day. So at 
precisely four o'clock every day the Germans shelled that road 
which is used for transportation of troops and supplies; and 
with typical American foresight our boys made it a point never 
to be in that neighborhood at four o'clock. On this particular 
day, however, the Germans commenced shelling the road before 
the ambulance boys got down there, so that they found shells 
flying around the cross-road at the wrong time, and also that 
the Germans had succeeded in killing twelve or fifteen mules, 
which had piled up in front of them. The camion driver tried 
to get through on the right and the boys through on the left, 
and both of them got stuck. The shells were flying around them 
and it looked pretty dark. The driver of the camion gave it up, 
and came over to the American boys and said: :"We have 
been comrades in democracy ; let us be comrades in death. ' ' The 
American boys said : ' ' Comrades, hell ! Get busy and pull these 
mules out of here. ' ' They got busy, pulled them away, and they 
all got through safely. 

I think there is an application to that, and it is this: 
Whereas, as President Suzzallo has well said, we should be, if 
necessary, comrades in death for the principles which he laid 
out, yet we should in the first place be prepared in the ways 
of the ambulance boys to get busy and drag out of the road all 
the obstructions to a democracy so that we may have a durable 
peace. 

While I was over there at the French front I was with a 
genial French major of some sixty-three years in that vicinity 
where the reports of yesterday tell us they are having a very 
vigorous offensive. This French major pointed out to me that 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 533 

the great danger in the offensive did not come in going over the 
top. We have come to think of going over the top as the great 
danger ; but by means of protection of barrage fire and thorough 
organization the going over the top was free from danger. They 
come down the trench and rush forward, taking the ground that 
they have planned ; everybody knows where to go and where to 
stop. The real danger and test comes when they proceed, as 
they say, to "dig in," to consolidate, to try to hold what they 
have won. 

Now it appears to me that the problems of education after 
this war are the problems of consolidation. First of all, a prob- 
lem of the conservation of the ideals and experiences that come 
out of the war. The question is whether we can hold what we 
have gained, protect what we want by a barrage, protect what 
we have gained ; we have gone over the top, and have abandoned 
a lot of education which should have been abandoned a long time 
ago. Can we hold this after the danger is past, after the emotion 
and enthusiasm has died down? We have gone over the top 
when President Suzzallo says we should continue to make school 
processes more vital, to make more definite the mere casual con- 
tent of life. We are doing that now in school. We are begin- 
ning to teach economics, as President Suzzallo says, so that in 
many ways we are promoting the intentions of the Government. 
Students are learning a great deal in practical economics by 
their own participation in many kinds of government work. We 
have gone over the top mth reference to physical education, and 
that is something we needed to do. 

I was attending an annual convention of the International 
Athletic Association in Washington not long ago, and Secretary 
Baker spoke to the men there, representative men devoted to the 
traditional intercollegiate athletics, and all that goes with it, and 
who know of the training of most of the students. Secretary 
Baker in his address pointed out that they had failed to protect 
men in the past ; that we had failed to promote athletics for the 
health and physical efficiency of the entire group. They pro- 
ceeded to do away with paid coaches and training tables and 
excessive expenses of athletics. Right down the line they pro- 
ceeded to abolish these things under the spur of their enthusiasm 
of the moment; and they proceeded immediately to abandon 



534 UNIVEESITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY 

many more of the notorious doings in intercollegiate athletics, 
and pave the way for a new programme wliich should see to it 
that the ideas in school and college athletics would not be the 
overtraining of a few individuals at the expense of their total 
school life. 

When the war broke out the Government called on the uni- 
versities to furnish men for the army. Seventy-five per cent of 
the first group were taken. A large proportion were unfit for 
service because the university had failed. Our universities are 
ashamed to see the men walking back after a few months and 
see the great gain they should have made before the war began. 

I think by means of the war we have already made gains in 
another direction mentioned by President Suzzallo. "We have 
made gains in discipline. 

Again, the American nation, the most extravagant nation, 
is making some gains. Sometimes it looks as if there had been 
no gain at all. As I look up and down the streets of San Fran- 
cisco and Los Angeles it seems to me sometimes as if we had 
made no gain whatever in thrift ; as if we were going on as we 
had before with our foolish and vulgar exhibition of wealth and 
competition in some of the petty follies of life. Nevertheless, 
I am optimistic enough to believe that we have made some gains 
along this line, and whether we want to or not we are going to 
make more gains ; and it is one of the businesses of the universities 
to conserve until the war is over. 

We have made a little gain already in national consciousness. 
Before the war it seemed as if nothing could have made that 
possible. And right here I want to speak of one aspect of that 
situation which has just appeared in this phase of the problem 
of education. It seems to me that this war has shown us verj'- 
well, through the extreme individualism which President Suz- 
zallo has spoken of, that we have utterly failed to get control of 
education, utterly failed to develop our national machinery, our 
national consciousness, and we do not know how to use our vast 
educational system. When this war broke out we were uncon- 
scious as to how to use our various educational forms of ma- 
chinery, and we do not know how to do it yet. 

When I was in Washington about two months ago I found 
that the most hated word in Washington today is coordination. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 535 

Why? Because we have lacked coordination, and do not yet 
know how to get it. The fact of our Government not knowing 
how to get control is precisely the same as the army crying out 
for trained men all along the line. It did not know where to 
get the trained technicians for its immediate needs. And the 
leaders in education could not help because they did not know 
how to use our educational machinery, there being no national 
department of education. We have a Bureau of Education with 
merely a few chances of possible help; Ave have no conception 
of it as a national department of education. We have the Navy 
Department trying to do some work for itself. We have a sep- 
arate bureau for the education of various other groups. Sud- 
denly realizing that we did not have anything in the way of a 
national department of education, we created a Federal Bureau 
for Education. The Federal Bureau proceeded to get as best 
it might from the bureaus here and there some statements as to 
the demand for technicians. It formulated that statement four 
or five months ago, and found that for the next army to be raised 
there would be needed more than four hundred and fifty thou- 
sand trained men ; so many chemists, physiologists, statisticians, 
draughtsmen, and gas engine men ; four hundred and fifty thou- 
sand men which it did not know where to find. It has raided 
all the institutions of the country and taken in more than fifty 
per cent of the members of technical departments or faculties 
of the universities. So, my friends, they took all they could 
find, and they have not been able to get enough for the first army 
of one million men. Now they find they need four hundred and 
fifty thousand for the next army. Those needs were obvious six 
months ago, and they should have been clear to us three years 
ago. Yet there is nobody to do it. Wlio shall do it? Shall the 
Secretary of War do it? Shall the Secretary of the Navy do 
it? Shall the President do it? Shall the Federal Bureau of 
Education do it ? Shall the Federal Board of Vocational Educa- 
tion do it? Shall the newly created committee on specialization 
in the army do it ? And while we are debating who will do the 
work? It resolves itself into this: Let us profit by our failure 
in the past and gain the necessary control for training and 
organizing all the educational forces of the country for our 
defense. In the future we should have not only a Secretary of 



536 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

War, and a Secretary of the Navy, but a Secretary of Education ; 
and we should spend about one hundred times as much as we 
have in the past. If war is worth paying w^hat we pay for it 
now, it certainly should be worth while in times of peace to pay 
for a Department of Education with the aim of maintaining 
certain vital thing's. We certainly should be willing to pay in 
times of peace as much in a year as we pay in a day in times 
of war. 

And finally, on the basis of a national consciousness, we must 
have an international consciousness. I have had conferences with 
the leading men of Great Britain, and have been in conferences 
with the Foreign Office, and have attended notable gatherings 
at the opening of the University of Cambridge, and have talked 
with Gilbert Murray and others who have studied this problem 
of international relations. I want, in conclusion, just to speak 
of the vast importance of our understanding the other branch 
of our own race, the people of Great Britain. It is extremely 
difficult for us to do this, because the people of Great Britain 
cannot talk; they do not know how; they will not talk about 
anything, and it is difficult to get acquainted with them. I 
spoke on the steamer coming home at a conference we had in 
the evening where Admiral Mayo and his staff w^ere present, and 
members of the British Naval Staff and Consuls from every- 
where, but in my travels in England I could never get an oppor- 
tunity of speaking with an officer. British people can articulate, 
but they will not speak. When I was over there I visited their 
training camps and saw forty thousand fresh soldiers from Ire- 
land, Scotland, and England. Their sanitary conditions were 
perfection to the last inch; their discipline was perfect right 
down to the last man ; and the spirit was such that I have never 
seen anything in the world to equal it. I have never seen any- 
thing to equal the spirit of the British army. When we begin 
to realize how they have held five times their number and how 
they have held German militarism to save the cause of democracy, 
held them until the Americans could come, we begin to under- 
stand how it has been possible for them to develop a navy suc- 
cessful in transporting five million soldiers across the English 
Channel without losing a single man. We begin to understand 
then about the wisdom of Great Britain, and we realize then 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 537 

that the war would have been lost in the first few months if the 
British navy had not been there to keep the Germans off and 
keep the paths open for bringing men and mules and food to 
France. We realize what little chance there would have been if 
it had not been for the traditional policy of Great Britain. We 
realize now that Great Britain has absolute control of the sea. 
We wonder when America will have such method of vision as 
to adopt that principle, the principle of the British navy, on the 
ocean of the world in order to gain for the woild a privilege on 
a basis of free trade. 

I have not time to deal with this subject at any great length ; 
but it seems to me that we have already gone over the top and 
that we have made long strides toward a better understanding 
of the ideals we hold in common with the British nation. I have 
not spoken nor need I speak of the French. There is no trouble 
there. We responded. But I do feel that it is necessary to 
overcome the erroneous idea which has been brought about 
through our relations in history with Great Britain. We must 
overlook that and realize that those differences are superficial. 
Their fundamental principles and our own are identical. If 
we are going to gain by this war after going over the top, it 
seems to me we have no hope of doing it unless we do it with the 
people of Great Britain ; and for that cooperative effort we must 
have a much better understanding than we have had in the past. 
It will profit us nothing to gain the world by democracy if we 
therefore lose the soul of democracy. 



538 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENARY 



ADDRESS OF MASAHARU ANESAKI 

Professor of Comparative Religion, Imperial University of Tokyo, Exchange 
Professor of Philosophy, Harvard University 

The chairman : I will now introduce Professor Anesaki of 
the Imperial University of Tokyo, whose presence here is a very 
good illustration of the beginning of the right kind of inter- 
nationalism. 

Professor anesaki : Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen : 
I shall be very brief, as I am a Japanese, and, besides, I am not 
a preacher. In hearing Professor Suzzallo's remarks on edu- 
cation and the educational problems of the United States I can- 
not help being impressed with the similarity and at the same 
time with the difference we have in the United States and Japan 
as regards the problems of education. 

Now, to take one point out of others, President Zuzzallo has 
said, and I think many of you endorse his views, that the United 
States has made too much of individualism ; and, as Mr. Foster 
said, there is alwaj^s time for coordination, but little coordination. 
This is certainly true according to your point of view. From 
the Japanese point of view, I must say we have just the same 
appeals and differences, but in quite the opposite direction. We 
have very little individualism; and instead of that we have 
system, organization, and everything of that kind possible. We 
have perhaps too much coordination of the various affairs of 
social and human activity ; much coordination, but very little 
initiative, whereas you have initiative, but not very much co- 
ordination. Viewing it in this way, I wonder whether in at- 
tacking many problems, not only in education but in other 
spheres of social life, we may not cooperate in exchanging our 
views and sentiments, and by bringing together both our vices 
and our merits, side by side, learn, perhaps, to know ourselves 
and at the same time to know others. For it is with a nation as 
Mnith an individual; a nation does not know itself when left 
alone, but only as it comes in contact with other nations and 
compares its own characteristics or attributes with those of other 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 539 

peoples. And this brings about mutual sympathy and under- 
standing. To know others is coordinating one 's self. We know 
ourselves by knowing others. We say we must save ourselves, 
but we must save others to save ourselves. Knowing each other, 
having an understanding of the national and social life of all 
the countries bordering upon the Pacific Ocean, in this lies the 
solution of our special international problem. 

Now some of you are complaining you have had too much 
individualism, while we are often accused of having too much 
nationalism. But I question whether nationalism and individ- 
ualism are two fundamentally different things. My idea is to 
view all these aspects of human life — individualism and (let me 
coin a word) familism, nationalism and internationalism — as 
various manifestations of the same human nature which spring 
from two instincts: the instinct of self-preservation and the 
instinct for the perpetuation of the race. Now, life is nothing 
but various manifestations of those instincts; and the question 
of education, whether individual education or national education, 
is whether we cannot out of those fundamental instincts, out of 
the safe depths of human nature, develop an elevating influence. 
The individual is to preserve itself, individual life; but he can- 
not save his life without the family, and the family, in turn, can- 
not exist without social life. And now the world, the whole 
world, is facing a crisis: whether a nation could exist by and 
for itself alone without regard to others. There is almost no 
need of discussing that point, because all of you are now fighting 
and sacrificing your young men for that, that the world may 
not be left to the reign of autocracy. But in the future, in order 
that our grown children may see a world coordinated, and that 
they may grow to the principle and idea of human solidarity, 
we must recognize that through these various manifestations of 
human life there are always the same principles prevailing. 

Now, the next point of mine is one that President Suzzallo 
has touched upon. It is often said that to start with inter- 
nationalism is a Utopia, which, as somebody has said, is like 
building a pyramid, not upon its base but upon its apex, and 
there is truth in this comparison. But I would look upon human 
life not as a pyramid, speaking in a figurative way, but as a 
circle. We may start at any point and go in either direction. 



540 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENART 

but we have to go around the ring. Now, your international 
life has been started with the individualists who sought freedom 
and opportunity in the new world. You have started with 
individualism and are now going to nationalism, and surely 
toward internationalism, to a higher internationalism than had 
been thought of and planned by your social leaders. On the 
other hand, we Japanese have started a nation not with indi- 
vidualism; and while we are now facing the situation in which 
nationalism is a power and a necessity, we must come to nation- 
alism, recognize it also as the foundation of individualism, free- 
dom, initiative, and personal character. Similarly, there may 
some day come a state which starts with internationalism at once, 
but it, too, will have to learn that human nature demands that a 
perfect realization of human life means the perfection of all its 
human instincts. The question where you have started is very 
essential to you, and similarly the question where we Japanese 
have started is very important for us; but we proceed to go 
around the ring of human life and try to find all the different 
aspects, which finally culminate in family solidarity of the high- 
est type — internationalism. I think we are now at a meeting 
point where we must have internationalism. The time has surely 
come for us to exchange our views and compare their merits, and 
then try to supplement each other. And I wonder whether an 
international investigation of education cannot be established, 
not only between this country and Japan but between other 
countries, with a view to establishing more human solidarity, 
which will mean, of course, the more perfect developing of all 
of man's instincts, both lower and higher. 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 541 



ADDRESS OF MR. YUNG-YU YEN 
Director, Educational Bureau of Chiaoyupa, China 

The chairman : The next speaker will be Dr. Yung-Yu Yen, 
Director, Educational Bureau of Chiaoyupa, China. 

Doctor yen: All of you have heard the excellent paper 
read to us by President Suzzallo, dealing with all phases of the 
educational problem after the war. We have also heard the 
story told us by President Foster ; and we have also heard about 
the principles of individualism and nationalism in relation to 
education from Professor Anesaki. This has practically left very 
little for me to say. I prefer to deal more with the abstract side 
of educational problems, but it is the material side of educa- 
tional problems that forces itself upon our attention. I re- 
member President Suzzallo told us something about the import- 
ance of vocational education, and I think it will be even more 
important after the war ; because through this terrible war com- 
merce and the industries of the country have been crippled, 
greatly crippled, and their adjustment will require a long time 
to complete. Many men will be disabled, and to fill these vacan- 
cies will not be an easy task. Such readjustment and recon- 
struction will necessarily fall largely upon the universities of 
the country. The universities in the future must devise means 
as to how these technical men should be trained in the most 
effectual way and in the quickest time. Vocational education 
must be given freely after the war. 

I remember that President Foster told us that at the present 
time the American nation is short of four hundred and fifty 
thousand technical men. Now, you are just beginning the war. 
How many more men will you be short of after the war? So 
after the war is over the universities and secondary schools must 
think of the training of these young men in order to be abreast 
of the times. I think after the war the nations will have to co- 
operate with one another more closely in the commercial relations 
of the world. Until the war is really over we, of course, will 
not know whether the system of accommodation as proposed 



542 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

by Lord Lansdovvne of England, or whether grouping of nations 
against the central powers will be the outcome. No matter which 
comes, however, I think more close commercial relations, with 
the "Open Door" policy, and foresight will surely prevail. So 
in that case, of course, commercial relations will have to be greatly 
expanded all over the world. 

Now, in order to carry on such extensive commerce, we need 
men not only equipped with business training but also thor- 
oughly understanding the languages of countries where they are 
sent. That was mentioned by President Foster and President 
Suzzallo. They said we must be able to understand the social 
conditions of other countries, and, of course, if you want to 
understand the social conditions of other countries, you have to 
understand the language. 

After the war I think many countries in the East, like Monte- 
negro, Servia, and countries in the Balkan States, and countries 
in the Far East, like Japan and China — these countries will be 
a great field for commercial opportunities, and if you want to 
avail yourselves of these commercial opportunities you must send 
men who will be able to understand thoroughly the language of 
the countries. Otherwise, of course, if you do not understand 
the language of the country you will not understand the people, 
and therefore you will not have success. 

I, of course, come from China, and I have had many large 
business dealings with American merchants in China. American 
merchants in China lack knowledge of the Chinese. You must 
know that if you are not able to understand our language it 
is always a drawback. We always welcome Americans doing 
business with our people, because, you understand, we trust you, 
for America has no evil design in commercial business like the 
Germans. 



CONFEBENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 543 



ADDRESS OF CHARLES RICHARD VAN HISE, B.S., M.S., 

Ph.D., LL.D. 

President of the University of Wisconsin 

The CHAIRMAN: We will next hear from President C. R. 
Van Hise, University of Wisconsin. 

President van hise : Ladies and Gentlemen : I have found 
myself in accord with the principles of what Professor Suzzallo 
has presented for the development of the educational system in 
the United States along national lines; and also I have great 
sympathy with the views expressed by Professor Anesaki, and 
the difficulties which he suggested in carrying out the two ideals. 
In the next five or ten minutes I shall attempt to apply these 
principles to the particular problems which we now have before 
us, and state the problem which we are confronted with in an 
international way. 

I suppose that few of us doubt that the intense individualism 
of the citizens of the United States in the early stages of its 
development was most important and most helpful to the nation, 
and that under that individualism there has been the initiative 
and energy and the capacity for doing things in a large way, 
which has been already mentioned. Also I suppose there would 
not be any difference of opinion among the audience here that 
we cannot follow the old methods now that we are so much 
closer together than we used to be. It was all right, when men 
lived out on the prairies miles away from the nearest neighbor, 
for them to fire a revolver in any direction they pleased at any 
time; but when we are gathered in cities or communities close 
together that is not allowable ; we have to consider one another. 
And so it has been proved that throughout our educational 
system in recent years there has been strong emphasis upon the 
development of social responsibility, and we now teach as a 
religion, practically from the elementary school to the univer- 
sity, that social responsibilities should be the guiding force ; and 
we emphasize less individuality. But I, for one, should pro- 
foundly regret, if it proved to be the case, that in developing 



544 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABT 

social responsibilities we lose individuality. I have not been a 
teacher of social responsibilities, but I should wonder if in gain- 
ing a larger social consciousness, it became necessary to lose the 
individuality of old, whether we should not have lost more than 
we gained. Also, in more recent years we have gone to the third 
stage mentioned by President Suzzallo, the belief and the prac- 
tice of confidence in the expert. It has not gone far enough yet ; 
but the whole commission form of government, the whole move- 
ment, through the control of public utilities and the adminis- 
trative commission, has been the development of government by 
the expert; and probably that is the most fundamental change 
which has been made in the form of our government since the 
adoption of a constitution. 

The movement has not gone far enough yet ; but, considering 
its fundamental character and comparison with our system before 
the adoption of this method, I am surprised it is so rapid. We 
have gained the idea that there are some subjects concerning 
which the opinion of a few men may be of more value than the 
opinion of the state and nation. We have made a great advance. 
We shall be obliged to progress much more in that direction. 
We shall be obliged to extend the principle, and to realize in 
this modern system in which life is a complex one of social, 
economic, and industrial forces that the expert everywhere must 
guide ; and this to be done under broad principles decided upon 
by democracy. I shall agree on the importance of the school 
and the development of the department of education. Thus far 
we have gained only a national development in education, and 
the problem is how are we to get that national plan, providing 
it is the ideal one and correct one, adopted by those who take a 
different point of view. Already it has been pointed out that 
in certain respects Japan, due to its history and environments, 
has developed along somewhat different lines. Now we have the 
greatest and most powerful combination of nations in the world 
working along quite a different line, and believing as deeply in 
their principles as we believe in ours. Instead of taking, as we 
do, the view that the state exists for the individual, and the 
individual should have the full right to develop accordingly, it 
says the individual exists for the state and the individual must 
surrender all that is necessary in order that the state may be 



CONFERENCE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 545 

formidable and successful in its name ; so the individual is taught 
to follow the route prescribed, and has been taught to obey the 
state, and to sacrifice to the state, and has been taught to put 
the state 's responsibility above individuality ; and in the success 
of that achievement the wonderful power of education has been 
clearly shown. Probably it is the most wonderful education that 
exists, because nobody supposes that a German child brought 
up under our environment would have any different ideals from 
those we hold; nor can we suppose that if a child be taken to 
Germany it would be any different in its ideals from children 
who are brought up under the German system; it would have 
behaved in the state as the Germans behave. 

Here we have then these two great fundamental systems of 
ideas which are antipathetic. What are we going to do? How 
are we going to get our system accepted by the Central Powers ? 
The practice of those ideals from the time of freedom to the 
present moment, as built by Germany, has made it the powerful 
nation which it is, and brought it to the position where it dares 
to attempt to dominate the world ; believing in those doctrines, 
and holding that system, having the same faith in that autocracy 
as we have in our democracy, how are we to get an international 
system of education to include the two groups? That is our 
problem. It is perfectly clear to me that if Germany succeeds 
in this war, and expands in Russia as she has already expanded ; 
and if she succeeds in holding Belgium and France, and all the 
provinces of France and Africa, she would have achieved the 
wildest hopes of imperialists; and she would hold her doctrines 
more firmly than ever before, and begin her teaching over again 
in the acquired provinces and territories. 

Therefore, it seems to me that the first thing to do is to say 
that the practice of these doctrines which seem to us to be un- 
moral and which we despise shall not succeed and thus further 
spread the power of this system. After we affect that we have 
only begun. We might be, with the educational system and with 
this general military training which has been suggested here— 
we might be powerful enough to protect ourselves, provided we 
carry mighty armaments. But what about the protection of 
the colonies and such smaller nations as Belgium, Servia, and 
Montenegro, which would perforce be the prey of that evil 



546 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAEY 

system? Therefore, it seems to me there is absolutely no hope 
in this matter until we go back (I am not usually a preacher), 
and go back to the fundamental moral principles which the 
Christian nations have worked out, and which other nations not 
Christian have also worked out ; for the Turk in this war has 
been an example in obeying international law as compared with 
the Central Powers. We go back to the simple belief that a 
contract entered into is a sacred thing, and that there is a moral 
law, and that might does not make right. But we can only hope 
to change the system when the reign of recent years shall be 
dethroned in the Central Powers, and the moral law restored. 
It is a formidable undertaking ; but any system of international 
education which did not include that seems to me to be but a 
guise. And when we win the war we must be content only when 
the evil philosophy of Germany has been uprooted in her school 
system and the principle of moral law recognized by German 
citizens, by the German state, and by the German ruler. This 
is no easy task. I do not know how long it will take. It may 
take generations. It took a century to build up the present 
system of Germany. I hope it will not take so long until it is 
destroyed and there is peace in this world; but until it is de- 
stroyed there can be no peace, and anarchy may exist at any 
moment at the will of autocratic power. 



SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS 



In addition to the plans for conferences on international 
relations during the Semicentenary Week, the University also 
desired to leave as a permanent record of its semicentenary a 
series of scholarly publications by members of the University. 

Plans for the publication of such a series of works in the 
fields of philosophy, history, literature, and science may be said 
to have been started eight years ago M^hen President Benjamin 
Ide Wheeler laid the matter before the Editorial Committee of 
the University, saying: "When we celebrate the semicentennial 
of the University of California in 1918 . . . we should produce 
as our chief monument for that occasion a series of publications. ' ' 
Some months later the Editorial Committee submitted to the 
Academic Senate a carefully planned report on the character 
and scope of the contributions considered appropriate for such 
a purpose, and these recommendations were adopted by the 
Senate in May, 1911. 

According to this report, it was planned to ''gather under 
one superscription the current scholarly work of the University 
in all its varied aspects. ..." The series was "to consist of 
original work of a literary, historical, or scientific nature, com- 
prehensive or monographic in character." Requests were made 
for "comprehensive critical summaries or digests of results, or 
reports of progress, in any field in which an author or investi- 
gator has been working for some years. ..." There were to 
be included also "editions of manuscripts and original sources, 
especially those relating to the history of the countries bordering 
on the Pacific." 

In accordance with this programme, the Editorial Committee 
immediately took steps to insure the submission and publication 
of works regarded as worthy of appearance in the Semicentennial 



548 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

Series, and eventually there were issued sixty-two separate con- 
tributions, appearing in fifty-two volumes and dealing with an 
interesting variety of subjects. Of this number six are devoted 
to philosophy, eight to history, twenty-four to mathematics and 
science, and twenty-four to literature and language. All but two 
of the contributions are written, edited, or translated by members 
of the faculty of the University of California, and forty-six 
have been issued by the University of California Press. 

The President of the University hoped that these volumes 
would be the ' ' chief monument ' ' of the semicentenary, the lasting 
record of the University's scholarship at the end of its fiftieth 
year. Whether or not this series is a complete record of that 
scholarship there is no doubt that these works reveal the mani- 
fold activities and scope of the University and its earnest service 
to education and learning. 



SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS 549 



LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 



Idealism and the Modern Age. George Plimpton Adams, Associate 
Professor of Philosophy. Yale University Press. 250 pages. 
A study of the relation between certain moving forces and ideals 
in modern life, such as democracy, science, the modern industrial 
order, and certain aspects of philosophical idealism. 

The Binary Stars. Eobert Grant Aitken, Astromoner, Lick Observatory. 
New York, Douglas C. McMurtrie. 8vo., 316 pages. 
A general account of our present knowledge of the binary stars, 
including such an exposition of the best observing methods and of 
approved methods of orbit computation as may make a useful guide 
to those who wish to undertake the investigations of these systems. 
Conclusions based upon researches conducted during the past twenty 
years. Terms are defined in the brief introduction. The first two 
chapters give an historical sketch of binary star work. Then follow 
five chapters devoted to the observing methods and methods of orbit 
computation for visual, spectroscopic, and eelisping binaries; the 
chapter entitled ''The Eadial Velocity of a Star," which treats of 
observing apparatus and methods for spectroscopic binary stars, being 
written by Dr. J. H. Moore. The next three chapters deal statistically 
with the known orbits of binary stars and with the distribution of 
binary stars. The final chapter discusses the origin of the binary 
system. 

The Greek Theatre of the Fifth Century. James Turney Allen, Asso- 
ciate Professor of Greek. University of California Press. 8vo., 
200 pages. 
An attempt at reconstruction of the theatre at Athens in the fifth 
century before Christ, the golden age of the Greek drama. The matter 
is presented, therefore, in the form of an argument, in the course of 
which a large portion of the controversial literature dealing with this 
subject during the last thirty or forty years is passed in review. 

Changes in the Chemical Composition of Grapes During Eipening. 

Frederic Theodore Bioletti, Professor of Viticulture and Enology, 

"William Vere Cruess, Assistant Professor of Zymology, and 

Horace Denan Davi. University of California Press. Large 

8vo., 27 pages. 

This paper deals with investigations to determine the chemical 

composition of grapes during ripening, and also discusses similar 

phases of the question with respect to the composition of the leaves 

of the grape vines. The investigations also show the high variability 

which characterizes the chemical composition of leaves and fruit on 

vines, hence showing the necessary precautions which are to be taken 

in such work. They also consider many other factors which affect 

the composition of the grape in other respects than those bearing on 

the sugar and acid content. 



550 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

Father Kino's Historical Memoir of the Southwest. Translated for 
tlie first time into English from tlie original manuscript in the 
Archives of Mexico. Edited and annotated by Herbert Eugene 
Bolton, Professor of American History. Cleveland, Arthur H. 
Clark Company. 2 vols. (Ill, IV), large 8vo., 708 pages. 
A careful translation of Kino's Favores Celestiales, preceded by 
an extended biography of Father Kino, illustrated by maps and fac- 
similes, with full analytical index. The book records the life work 
of one of America's most remarkable pioneers and makes available to 
English readers an entertaining first-hand account of the beginnings 
of European civilzation in southern Arizona and adjacent regions. 

Favores Celestiales Experimentados en las Nuevas Conquistas y 
NuEVAS Comversiones de la Nueva Navarra. By Eusebio 
Francisco Kino, S.J. Edited by Herbert Eugene Bolton, Pro- 
fessor of American History. University of California Press. 
8vo., 500 pages. 
Father Kino, the noted missionary of Pimeria Alta (Southern 
Arizona and Sonora), wrote an extended narrative of his quarter 
century of pioneering on that frontier. This precious manuscript was 
used by the early Jesuit historians Venegas and Ortega, then disap- 
peared, and has been lost to view for a century and a half. Eminent 
scholars have denied that such a work ever existed, until about ten 
years ago, when Professor Bolton discovered the original manuscript 
in the archives of Mexico. An English version prepared by Professor 
Bolton is listed above. 

The publication of this rare work puts on a sound basis the little 
known early history of a large section of the Southwest. It gives a 
first-hand account of Kino 's extraordinary explorations, his missionary 
work among the Pimas and Yumas, his stock ranching, his agricul- 
tural enterprises, and his defense of the outposts of civilization against 
Apache depredations. 

The Spectrographic Velocities of the Brighter Stars, Observed at the 
Lick Observatory and the D. O. Mills Observatory. William 
Wallace Campbell, Director, Lick Observatory. University of 
California Press. 4to, 400 pages. 
Professor Campbell describes the instruments and methods employed 
at Mount Hamilton and at Santiago, Chile, in the accurate determi- 
nation of the motions of approach and recession of about two thousand 
of the brighter stars distributed over the entire sky. The results for 
the individual observations of each star are given and a list of the 
mean results obtained for the individual stars, forming a catalogue 
of the radial velocities of these stars. Appropriate data is furnished 
for the several hundred stars in the list whose radial velocities vary 
under the gravitational influences of companion stars. A determina- 
tion of the motion of the solar system through the great stellar system 
is made by means of the observational data described, and other 
statistical studies relating to apparent motions of stars of the different 
spectral classes are included. 

The Spectrographic Velocities of the Bright-Line Nebulae. William 

Wallace Campbell, Director, Lick Observatory, and Joseph H. 

Moore, Assistant Astronomer, Lick Observatory. University of 

California Press. 4to, 75 pages. 

The radial velocities of all nebulae whose spectra are known to 

contain bright-lines and are bright enough for observation have been 

measured at the Lick Observatory and at the D. O. Mills Observatory; 



SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS 551 

seventy-seven at Mount Hamilton and eighty-four at Santiago, Chile — 
125 in all. The radial velocities for many parts of the great nebula 
in Orion have also been determined. At Mount Hamilton forty-five 
of those bright-line nebulae known as "planetaries" have been ob- 
served spectrographically for rotation or internal motion effects. 

Catalogue of Materials in the Aechivo General le las Indias for the 
History of the Pacific Coast and the American Southwest. 
Charles Edward Chapman, Assistant Professor of Latin-American 
and California History. University of California Press. 8vo., 
755 pages. 

This volume represents an examination of about 250,000 documents, 
or 500,000 pages of manuscript material (each page 21^^ by 31% 
centimetres in size), from which about 25,000 documents were selected 
as bearing on western American history, which for purposes of entry 
have been reduced to some 6000 items, arranged in chronological order. 
Full technical description and brief abstracts are given. Except for 
the two recent volumes, The Founding of Spanish California (Charles 
E. Chapman, New York, 1916) and Jose de Gdlves, Visitor-General of 
New Spain (Herbert Ingram Priestley, Berkeley, 1916), few works 
have yet utilized the materials now made available, and 20,000 docu- 
ments of exceptional value have never been utilized. Technically, the 
documents catalogued are of the greatest value, since they were the 
official file of the highest body of Spanish colonial machinery in Spain. 
They range in date from 1596 to 1830, but most of them relate to the 
eighteenth century. 

The introduction contains a section describing the extraordinary 
wealth of the Archivo General de las Indias of Seville, Spain; also 
one giving a history of the Native Sons ' Fellowships of the University 
of California, and an account of the activities of the various fellows. 

L'exotisme americain dans l'oeuvre de Chateaurbiand. Charles Gilbert 

Chinard, professeur de la langue et litterature fran^aises. Paris, 

Haehette. Small Svo., ix, 305 pages. 

The opening chapters deal with the life of Chateaubriand from 

his early years" in Combourg to his return from exile in the spring of 

1800, and include a discussion of his travels in America. Evidence is 

given that Chateaubriand saw Niagara Falls and traveled in America 

more extensively than is generally admitted. The later chapters give 

an analysis of Chateaubriand's American novels, written in England 

during his exile, and Les Natchez may be regarded as the history of 

the author's mind from 1791 to 1799. The documentation of the author 

is very thorough both in Les Natchez and in Atala. 

Les Natchez de Chateaubriand, livres I et II, ^dites avec des notes 
CEiTiQus. Charles Gilbert Chinard, professeur de la langue et 
litterature fran^aises. University of California Press. 8vo., 
100 pages. 
Lexicological Evolution and Conceptual Progress. John Taggart Clark, 
Assistant Professor of Romanic Philology. University of Cali- 
fornia Press. 8vo., 30 pages. 
The vocabulary of a people may be taken as a measure of that 
people's mentality, and this treatise considers the importance of 
studying comparatively the lexical history of different peoples from 
the point of view of conceptual growth. Attention is called to the 
inexhaustible wealth of richly significant material directly accessible 
for the study of psycho-lexical evolution, and to the value of this study 
for a deeper understanding of the principles underlying the growth of 
conceptual intelligence. 



552 UNIVEBSITT OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

Feancisco Navarro Villoslada. Beatrice Quijada Cornish, Assistant in 
Spanish. University of California Press. 8vo., 85 pages. 
There exists no adequate discussion of the life and works of 
Francisco Navarro Villoslada. No life of Villoslada, the great his- 
torical novelist of the romantic school, the Walter Scott of Basque 
traditions, has been published, no comprehensive literary appreciation 
has been written, no political estimate of the man has been attempted, 
and no complete bibliography of his writings is possible, on account 
of the difficulty in procuring all his works, and because of the vast 
amount of unpublished material. The main contribution in the present 
study is the presentation of details of Villoslada 's life, chiefly through 
the use of materials recently received from Spain, and in a general 
survey of his literary, political, and journalistic labors. The appendix 
contains the first preliminary bibliography of Villoslada 's works. 
The year 1918 marks the celebration in Pamplona of the centenary 
of the birth of Villoslada. Mrs. Cornish has attempted to make ap- 
preciative use of all available material, in a desire to secure more 
general regard for the character and genius of Villoslada. 

Edmund Spenser: a Critical Study. Herbert Ellsworth Cory, Assistant 
Professor of English. University of California Press. 8vo., 
478 pages. 
A study of Spenser's poetry on the basis of his works, their chief 
sources, and the collective opinion of Spenser in his own and subse- 
quent periods. 

The Fermentation Organisms of Californian Grapes. William Vere 
Cruess, Assistant Professor of Zymology. University of Cali- 
fornia Press. Large 8vo., 50 pages. 
Eesults of investigations on the micro-organisms occurring on 
Californian grapes and more particularly of those of most importance 
in the fermentation of grapes. The investigation was qualitative and 
quantitative, covering the effect on type and number of micro-organisms 
of (a) locality, (&) degree of ripeness, and (c) shipment from vine- 
yard to winery. It included studies of (d) the micro-organisms nor- 
mally found on grapes as received at the winery, (e) their control 
during fermentation, and (f) their morphological and histological 
characteristics. The data are of value to enologists and winemakers 
engaged in the fermentation of grapes for wine or other fermented 
products and will be of interest to the systematic microbiologist 
engaged in the classification of micro-organisms from fruits. 

Descriptions of 762 Nebulae and Clusters Photographed With the 
Crossley Eeflector. Herbert Doust Curtis, Astronomer, Lick 
Observatory. University of California Press. 4to, 40 pages, 
8 illustrations. 
Brief descriptions of all nebulae and clusters photographed with 
the Crossley Reflector from 1898, when systematic work was com- 
menced with this instrument at Mount Hamilton, until February 1, 
1918. A new determination is made of the probable total number of 
the spiral nebulae. 

The Planetary Nebulae. Heber Doust Curtis, Astronomer, Lick Ob- 
servatory. University of California Press. 4to, 40 pages, 84 
illustrations. 
In addition to the discussion, this paper contains photographs, 
drawings, and brief descriptions of seventy-eight planetary nebulae 
(all known objects of this class north of 34° south declination). 



SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS 553 

A Study of Absorption Effects in the Spiral Nebulae. Heber Doust 

Curtis, Astronomer, Lick Observatory. University of California 

Press. 4to, 30 pages, with illustrations of 78 spirals. 

_ Dr. Curtis has examined the extensive collection of photographs of 

spiral nebulae made with the Crossley Eeflector. Illustrations are 

published of seventy-eight spirals. 

Mutation in Matthiola. Howard Brett Frost, Instructor in Plant Breed- 
ing in the Citrus Experiment Station and Graduate School of 
Tropical Agriculture. University of California Press. Large 
8vo., 80 pages, 13 plates. 

Dr. Frost describes the occurrence, characteristics, and heredity of 
certain aberrant types of Matthiola annua Sweec, which appear to 
arise by mutation. The case has special interest because these types 
resemble in genetic behavior some of the supposedly mutant types of 
Oenothera (which are considered by some geneticists to be "non- 
Mendelian"), although the typical Mendelian mechanism of heredity 
is known to be present in the species. 

Typhoid Fever, Considered as a Problem of Scientific Medicine. Fred- 
erick Parker Gay, Professor of Pathology. The Macmillan 
Company, New York. 8vo., 286 pages. 
During the past five years Professor Gay and collaborators have 
published in various journals a series of articles dealing with typhoid 
fever. These have been concerned with the treatment of typhoid 
fever with sensitized vaccines, the production of the carrier state in 
laboratory animals, prophylactic immunization against typhoid fever, 
skin reactions in typhoid fever and the preparation and the use of 
typhoidin for this purpose. The studies have not unnaturally led to 
the preparation of the above volume, the intention and scope of which 
are summarized in the following excerpt from the preface: "It aims 
to treat historically the development and present status of our knowl- 
edge concerning this important malady as viewed from the standpoint 
of its mechanism. It is not primarily designed to aid directly in the 
clinic or the laboratory, but should serve to point out the relations of 
one to the other, to indicate the dependence of practice on theory, 
and the happy applicability to human need of investigation that may 
have seemed to aim merely at the gratification of intellectual curiosity. ' ' 

Shakespeare and the Founders of Liberty in America. Charles Mills 
Gayley, Professor of the English Language and Literature. 

New York, The Macmillan Company, Small 8vo., 270 pages. 

A presentation of historical facts not generally known. It is 
shown that Shakespeare was acquainted with several of the Patriots 
of the Virginia Council in London who achieved the first charters of 
liberty for Virginia and New England, that he was the personal friend 
of some of the most important among them, and that he was indebted 
for materials incorporated in The Tempest to confidential information 
jealously guarded by the Virginia Council, accessible only to well- 
wishers of the Patriots, and not published till nine years after the 
poet's death. The author maintains that Shakespeare held well 
defined opinions concerning government and the rights and responsi- 
bilities of the individual in relation to it, and that many of the poet 's 
utterances and the drift of his historical plays reveal his sympathy 
with the views of various patriots and liberal movements. 



554 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

Methods and Materials of Literary Criticism: Lyric, Epic, and Allied 

Forms of Poetry. Charles Mills Gayley, Professor of English, 

and Benjamin Putnam Kurtz, Associate Professor of English. 

Boston, Ginn & Co., 8vo., xi, 900 pages. 

A survey of the theoretical and historical criticism of the lyric 

and epic in general and of such special forms as elegy, epigram, ode, 

sonnet, song, ballad, pastoral, and idyl. 

The Foemation of the State of Oklahoma (1803-1906). Roy Gittinger, 
Professor of English History in the University of Oklahoma. 
University of California Press. 8vo., 256 pages. 
An account of the most notable instance in American history of 
the arrest and resumption of vi^estward migration. Oklahoma was 
the last state to be carved from the Louisiana Purchase. The region 
constituting Oklahoma was withheld from statehood longer than any 
other portion of Louisiana as a result of a long series of events con- 
nected with our national Indian policy. With the removal, after long 
continued pressure, of the legal barriers to the occupation of the soil, 
the rush of settlers was unprecedented, and within a decade the popu- 
lation had reached a million and a half. Dr. Gittinger is the first 
scholar to write a comprehensive account of the historical development 
of the Oklahoma region in its larger relations with the general course 
of American history. 

The Game Birds of California. Joseph Grinnell, Director, California 

Museum of Vertebrate Zoology; Harold Child Bryant, Economic 

Ornithologist; and Harry Schelwaldt Swarth, Curator of Birds, 

of the Staff of the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. 

University of California Press. Large 8vo., 642 pages, 16 plates 

in color, many drawings. 

A description of the game birds of the state — the ducks, geese, 

swans, ibises, cranes, rails, shore-birds, grouse, quail, and pigeons — in 

a form to meet the requirements of a varied public. It aims to give 

the hunter general information concerning the local game birds, to 

supply the naturalist with data regarding life histories, to give the 

legislator helpful facts relevant to the preparation of game laws, and 

to give the conservationist information contributory to his effort to 

perpetuate bird life. The original matter is derived from manuscript 

notes and specimens in the California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 

while an exhaustive review and compilation of literature relating to 

California game birds was also made. The material at hand has thus 

been organized in such form as to provide a convenient summary of 

our knowledge of the subject to date. Sixteen colored plates, nine 

of them made especially for this book, figure some of the more notable 

birds, while line drawings illustrate special characters of nearly every 

species. In addition to the specific treatment by species, there are 

chapters devoted to subjects relating to game birds in general. 

Kipling the Story Writer. Walter Morris Hart, Associate Professor of 
English Philology. University of California Press. Small 8vo., 
200 pages. 
A study of the technique of Kipling's short stories, tracing the 
development of his narrative art from its beginnings to 1910. 



SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS 555 

The Dinoflagellata of the San Diego Eegion— The Gymnodinioidae. 
Charles Atwood Kofoid, Professor of Zoology, and Olive Swezy, 
Zoologist, Scripps Institution for Biological Eeseareh. Univer- 
sity of California Press. 4to, 250 pages, 12 plates in color, 
16 text figures. 
Monograph of a group of little known littoral and pelagic organ- 
isms, found in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California in the 
vicinity of La Jolla and San Diego. These minute organisms are 
remarkable for their beauty and delicacy of coloring, are among the 
causes of the nightly display of phosphorescence in the breakers along 
the southern shores, and also form an important part of the food 
supply of the great oceanic meadows. The study has brought to light 
some interesting lines of evolutionary development in these small 
Protozoa, as well as emphasiadng the importance of temperature re- 
lations, both from a morphological standpoint and in regard to specia- 
tion within the group. It also demonstrates that many of these so- 
called simplest forms of life possess a complexity of organization 
which far surpasses that of many of the lower Metazoa. 

Serbia Crucified. Milutin Krunich, Lieutenant in the Serbian Army, 
Assistant in Serbo-Croatian. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Com- 
pany. 12mo,, 304 pages. 
A narrative, by a witness of the scenes described and an actor in 
them, of the tragic history of Serbia in the autumn of 1915, when that 
country, unaided by her allies, was defending herself from attacks of 
immensely superior Austrian, German, and Bulgarian armies. 

Perturbations and Tables of the Minor Planets Discovered by James 
C. Watson, Part II. Armin Otto Leuschner, Professor of 
Astronomy. 4to, 150 pages. 
By the will of James C. Watson the National Academy of Sciences 
of the United States of America was entrusted with the mathematical 
investigation of the motion of the twenty-three minor planets which 
he had discovered. In 1901, after various investigators had carried 
on the work for more than fiften years without arriving at satisfactory 
results of the perturbations, the Trustees of the Watson Fund of the 
Academy requested Professor Leuschner to continue the researches in 
the hope that they might be carried to a successful conclusion. In 
1910 the completed results relating to twelve planets were published 
in the Memoirs of the National Academy, Volume X, as Part I of the 
whole investigation. The results relating to the remaining eleven 
planets are comprised in the present work. These cases have been 
treated by methods proposed by Bohlin and von Zeipel. A revision 
of these methods and of the general tables based on them with 
reference to this group is included in the publication. 

The author has received assistance during the later stages of the 
investigation from Miss Estelle A. Glancy and Miss Sophia H. Levy. 

A Survey of Symbolic Logic. Clarence Irving Lewis, Assistant Professor 
of Philosophy. University of California Press. Large 8vo., 
409 pages. 
Symbolic logic has been recognized within the last quarter century 
as the basic branch of m.athematics and as a most important instru- 
ment of all exact deductive procedure. Peano 's Formulaire des Mathe- 
matiques, the Principia Mathematica of Whitehead and Russell, and 
numerous other studies evidence this recognition and growing import- 
ance. Modes of procedure and the notation of different contributors 



556 VNIVEB81TY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

have varied widely, so that only with the greatest difficulty can the 
student gain a comprehensive view of the subject at the present time. 
The Survey brings within the compass of a single volume, reducing to 
a common notation, so far as possible, the most important develop- 
ments of symbolic logic. 

Solon the Athenian. Ivan Mortimer Linforth, Associate Professor of 
Greek. University of California Press. 8vo., 150 pages. 
This volume contains an essay on the life and works of Solon, a 
critical text of the fragments of his poems, with translation and com- 
mentary, excursuses on matters requiring special investigation, a 
bibliography, and indices. Previously the only available information 
about Solon is contained in large histories of Greece. His poems are 
to be found only in large editions of all the fragments of early Greek 
poetry, and there is no complete translation and commentary in 
English. 

Ocean Temperatuees : Their Eelation to Solar Eadiation and Oceanic 
Circulation. George Francis McEwen, Hydrographer, Seripps 
Institution for Biological Eesearch. University of California 
Press. Large 8vo., 100 pages. 
A contribution toward the quantitative solution of physical prob- 
lems based on observations of phenomena as they occur under the 
complex conditions of nature. Four closely related problems relative 
to ocean temperatures are formulated and solved with the aid of well 
known methods in mathematical physics. Numerical applications 
mainly to observations made in the Pacific Ocean off the west coast 
of North America follow the solutions of the problems, and special 
attention is given to the comparison of theory with observations. 

A Sttidy in the Writings of Don Mariano Josifi de Larra. Elizabeth 

McGuire, Instructor in Spanish. University of California Press. 

8vo., 40 pages. 

The purpose of the present paper is to mention and classify the 

chief commentators of Don Mariano Jose de Larra, to enumerate his 

various literary attempts, to determine whether he is a classicist or a 

romanticist, to lay stress on the historical importance of his articles 

written between 1832 and 1837, to discuss the significance of his 

pseudonym Figaro; and, finally, to trace the sources of his dramatic 

productions to Scribe, Ducange, and Delavigne, and, by comparison, to 

set forth which of his works are translations and which are adaptations. 

LuCRETi DE Eerum Natura Libri Sex. Eecognovit Guilelmus Augustus 
Merrill, Universitatis Californiensis Professor. University of 
California Press. Small 8vo., 258 pages. 
An effort to establish the text of Lucretius, both by retaining the 
readings of the principal manuscripts and by emending corrupt pas- 
sages. 

Studies in Spanish Dramatic Versifications: Alarcon and Moreto. 
Sylvanus Griswold Morley, Assistant Professor of Spanish. 
University of California Press. 8vo., 30 pages. 
Two previous articles, published in the Bulletin Mspanique, at- 
tempted to determine the characteristics, from the metrical point of 
view, of the dramatist Tirso de Molina. The present study extends 
the inquiry to two other authors. Each is found to possess special 
predilections which furnish a basis for determining the authorship of 
disputed plays. 



SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS 557 

The Breakdown of Spanish Eule in South America. Bernard Moses, 
Professor of History and Political Science, Emeritus. 300 pages. 
The writer of The Spanish Dependencies in South America here 
presents a consideration of the last decades of colonial dependence in 
Spanish South America. The policy of the crown to confer important 
offices in America only upon persons sent from Spain, led Creoles and 
mestizos gradually to constitute themselves a society apart from the 
Spaniards, and in opposition to the established administration. The 
author gives a somewhat extended account of the expulsion of the 
Jesuits as an act depriving the dependencies of their ablest and most 
effective teachers, as well as of their most energetic and far-sighted 
industrial and commercial entrepreneurs, the only body of residents 
who manifested any clear conception of the proper relations to be 
maintained between the Spaniards and the Indians. The manner in 
which the development of interest in science and politics contributed 
to the spirit of patriotic independence is illustrated by the careers of 
Mutis and Narino. This patriotic outlook towards independence is 
further presented in the negotiations and expedition of Miranda. 

Studies in Biblical Parallelism. Louis I. Newman and William Popper, 
Associate Professor of Semitic Languages. University of Cali- 
fornia Press. Large 8vo., 388 pages. 
The purpose of these studies was to discover if possible a reason 
for the variations in Amos and in Isaiah, chapters 1-10, from the 
usual literary form of Hebrew poetry and prophecy, the parallelism of 
two or more successive lines. In addition, Mr. Newman has added a 
general introduction on the development of parallelism and its use 
both in other Semitic and in various non-Semitic languages, has 
classified all the verses of Amos according to certain types, and has 
examined into the probable stanzaic formation of some of the prophe- 
cies. Professor Popper has treated the first ten chapters of Isaiah, 
verse by verse, from the same point of view; and has translated the 
reconstructed text in such a way as to show some of the other stylistic 
characteristics of the original: the comparative length of line, the 
rhythm, and the assonance. 

Pan Tadeusz ; or. The Last Foray in Lithuania : a story of life among 

Polish gentlefolk in the years 1811 and 1812, by Adam 

MiCKiEWicz. Translated from the Polish by George Eapall 

Noyes, Associate Professor of Slavic Languages. London, J. M. 

Dent & Sons, Ltd.; New York, E. P. Button & Co. 8vo., xxiv, 

354 pages. 

The only previous English translation of this poem is now out of 

print. The present version strives to present Mickiewicz's epic in 

idiomatic and readable English prose. The introduction and notes by 

the translator give the information necessary for an understanding of 

the position of the poem in Polish literature, and of the allusions in 

it to Polish history and customs. 

Plays by Alexander Ostrovsky: A Prot^g^e of the Mistress, Poverty 

is No Crime, Sin and Sorrow are Common to All, It 's a Family 

Affair — ^We'll Settle it Ourselves. A translation from the 

Eussian. Edited by George Eapall Noyes, Associate Professor 

of Slavic Languages. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons. 

Small 8vo., 305 pages. 

The great Eussian dramatist, Alexander Ostrovsky (1823-86), of 

the central decades of the nineteenth century, of the realistic period 

in Eussian literature which is represented in fiction by Tolstoy, Tur- 



558 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOBNIA SEMICENTENABY 

genev, Dostoyevsky, and Goncharov, has been singularly neglected by 
translators, since only three of his plays have hitherto appeared in 
English. The present volume includes translations of four important 
dramas by students in the Slavic Department of the University of 
California: Jane W. Robertson, Minnie Eline Sadicoff, and John 
Laurence Seymour. Mr. Leonard Bacon of the English Department 
has given appropriate form to the verses included in Poverty is No 
Crime. There is a short introduction by Professor Noyes, who has 
revised the book for the press. 

Tolstoy. George Eapall Noyes, Associate Professor of Slavic Languages. 
New York, Duffield & Co. Small 8vo., 395 pages. 
This volume is a biography of Tolstoy as a man of letters. It 
gives only such details of his life as serve to illustrate his literary 
work or the personality that found expression therein. It strives to 
give an estimate of his genius as a novelist, as an educator, and as a 
writer on religious, social, and aesthetic questions. It emphasizes the 
essential unity of Tolstoy 's work and his relation to the main currents 
of Russian life and thought in the nineteenth century; in a word, it 
presents him as the master spirit among Russian authors. The book 
is one of a series of volumes on ' ' Master Spirits of Literature, ' ' edited 
by Professors Noyes and Hart of the University of California. 

Electrical Phenomena in Parallel Conductors. Frederick Eugene 
Pernot, Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering. 8vo., 
200 pages. 
The author has endeavored to discuss the phenomena arising in 
connection with the transmission of electrical power over metallic 
circuits. Using fundamental principles, rigorous equations have been 
developed, giving the relations between voltage, current, and constants 
of the circuits. Extensive use has been made of the complex quantity 
notation in all developments having to do with alternating currents. 
Whenever possible, approximate equations as well as their limitations 
and the errors involved in their use have been considered. Illustrative 
numerical examples and curves, including several dealing with long 
transmission lines, have been included. Finally, the author has endeav- 
ored to put all equations into such form that they may be intelligible 
and useful to the general engineer. 

Logarithms of Hyperbolic Functions to Twelve Significant Figures. 

Frederick Eugene Pernot, Assistant Professor of Electrical 

Engineering, and Baldwin Munger Woods, Assistant Professor 

of Theoretical Mechanics. University of California Press. 

Large 8vo., 171 pages. 

In previously published tables of the hyperbolic functions, where 

an accuracy of more than five places is obtained, a gap exists in the 

tabulation of the functions for the values of the argument between 

zero and two. Owing to the rapid variation of the derivatives of the 

functions in this interval the computations for a twelve-place table are 

somewhat tedious and complicated. It is in this part of the table, 

however, that computations required by the application of hyperbolic 

functions to engineering problems now fall. The authors undertook 

the compilation of these tables with the idea of supplying a base table 

which would fill the existing gap and furnish a source for future tables 

for engineering eompuations. 



SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS 559 

CiCKRO: A Biography. Torsten Petersson, Instructor in Latin. 600 pages. 
As comprehensive an account of Cicero as a single volume will 
permit. The aim is to present the Eoman background, which alone 
can make the narrative intelligible to any but the special student; 
to determine and to make clear the Eoman attitude toward a man's 
work in the world, the political atmosphere of Eome, the spirit in 
which the orators spoke, and the Eoman view of rhetoric, philosophy, 
and writing. Above all, it seeks to give a narrative of Cicero's life 
as it unfolded from one period to another and to convey a little of 
the spirit that animated him. The book is intended for reading, and 
not for reference. The notes are relatively few. A brief bibliography 
is added. 

Goethe and Sterne. William Eobert Eichard Pinger, late Assistant 
Professor of German. University of California Press. 8vo., 
50 pages. 
Goethe's relation to Laurence Sterne has always interested and 
sometimes puzzled Goethe scholars. Among the papers of the late 
Professor Pinger there was found a rich fund of material, the product 
of several years of collecting on this subject, which throws light upon 
the extent of Goethe's indebtedness to Sterne, upon Goethe's partici- 
pation along with Sterne in the sentimental trend of the times, upon 
Goethe's alleged plagiarism of Sterne, and kindred topics. Professor 
Pinger had planned to make these notes the basis of a contribution 
to the Semicentennial Publications. 

English-German Literary Influences : Survey and Bibliography. Law- 
rence Marsden Price, Instructor in German. University of 
California Press. 8vo., 300 pages. 
Despite the generally recognized importance of the influence of 
English literature on German, especially during the formative period 
of the latter, about 1720-70, there is no comprehensive treatise on the 
topic; instead an abundance of widely scattered reports of special 
investigators. In the present volume the bibliography of nearly one 
thousand titles attempts to organize the study of English-German 
literary influences, classifying all available material. It is divided 
into three parts, of which the second treats of the influence of Shake- 
speare in Germany, the first of other English influences up to the end 
of the eighteenth century, and the third of such influences in the 
nineteenth century. The survey, which is similarly divided, records 
the progress of investigation and by reviewing the important treatises 
summarizes our present. knowledge of the subject. 

Footnotes to Formal Logic. Charles Henry Eieber, Professor of Logic. 
University of California Press. 8vo., 177 pages. 
Critical essays, which taken together are intended as a defense of 
the Aristotelian logic. In modern indictment of formal logic chief 
attack has been made upon the traditional idealistic view of the 
import of judgment, and upon Aristotle's doctrine of syllogism. The 
author has set forth a view of inference which provides for a necessary 
factor in the thinking process beyond its pragmatic characteristics. 
He has also offered a new interpretation of Aristotle's doctrine of 
syllogism, which rescues it from the accusation of tautology and makes 
it universally valid. 



560 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENAET 

The Physical Chemistry of the Proteins. Thorbum Brailsford Eobert- 
son, Professor of Biochemistry and Pharmacology. New York, 
Longmans, Green & Co. 8vo., 483 pages. 
This work, although primarily concerned with the physical chem- 
istry of a limited section of the class, may also, in some measure, be 
regarded as contributing to an analysis of the properties and behavior 
of colloids in general, in so far as these permit of illustration by the 
properties and behavior of the various members of the protein group. 
The aim of the author has been to present a monograph which should 
constitute a comprehensive work of reference and at the same time a 
contribution to the general theory of the subject. 

The Lay of the Cid, Translated from the Spanish. Eobert Selden Eose, 
Instructor in Spanish in the Sheffield Scientific School, and 
Leonard Bacon, Instructor in English in the University of 
California. University of California Press. Svo., 200 pages. 

The Idealism of Kant's Successors. Josiah Eoyce. Edited, with an 
introduction, by Jacob Loewenberg. 
Lectures delivered at the Johns Hopkins University in 1906, under 
the title Aspects of Post-Kantian Idealism. Professor Eoyce 's con- 
demnation of modern Germany, voiced in his essays upon the war, is 
peculiarly impressive when viewed in the light of his intellectual 
attachment to her classic philosophy. Germany is judged, not by one 
who disparages or belittles, but by one who knows and cherishes the 
ideals of her past. A sane and sym^pathetic appreciation of Kant and 
his successors by one who showed no hesitancy in denouncing present 
day Germany should be welcomed by professional and general students 
alike. 

Twenty-Two Goblins. Translated from the Sanskrit. Arthur "William 
Eyder, Assistant Professor of Sanskrit. London, J. M. Dent 
& Sons, Ltd.; New York, E. P. Dutton & Co. Svo., viii, 220 
pages. 
Translation of an ancient Sanskrit collection of marvelous stories. 
The author of the work is unknown and its date cannot be exactly 
determined, but it has been, for something like two thousand years, 
extremely popular in India and other countries of Asia. The trans- 
lator's effort has been to present this matter in a form interesting to 
the English-speaking world. Two stories of the original have been 
omitted, on grounds of taste; otherwise the translation is closely 
literal. An attractive feature of the book is found in twenty colored 
illustrations by Mr. Perham William Nahl of the Department of 
Drawing in the University of California. 

Cervantes. Eudolph Schevill, Professor of Spanish. New York, Duffield 
& Co. Small 8vo., about 375 pages. 
A presentation of the chief events of Cervantes' life and an 
estimate of his various works. Eeeent discoveries regarding various 
members of his family and the new light thrown on his career by 
numerous documents found in Spanish archives, the interesting investi- 
gations of his writings by modern critics, permit a new presentation 
of his life and literary art. The book is one of a series of volumes on 
' ' Master Spirits of Literature, ' ' edited by Professors Noyes and Hart 
of the University of California. 



SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS 561 

Obkas completas de Miguel de Cervantes Saavedea. Edicion publicada 
por Eodolfo Schevill, Profesor en la Universidad de California 
(Berkeley) y Adolf o Bonilla, Profesor en la Universidad de 
Madrid. Madrid, imprenta de Bernardo Eodriguez. Small 8vo. 
No critical edition of the complete works of Cervantes has hitherto 
been attempted. The main object of the present edition is therefore 
to present a reliable text, by reprinting the first editions in the most 
trustworthy manner possible. The editors have added explanatory 
notes wherever the context required, in order that the modern reader 
may understand features of language or culture no longer clear today. 
Each volume, of moderate size, is designed to contain about 300 pages, 
of large type, clearly printed. The entire edition will contain about 
eighteen volumes. Two of the volumes, Cervantes ' comedias y entremeses, 
published in 1918, have been included in the Semicentennial Publi- 
cations of the University of California. 

The Dramatic Art of Lope de Vega. Eudolph Schevill, Professor of 
Spanish. University of California Press. Svo., 400 pages. 
An analysis of the main characteristics of Lope de Vega's methods 
of composition, his originality as well as his dependence upon tradition, 
his gift of improvisation, and his poetic charm. The pictures which 
he presents are compared with actual contemporary life in order to 
determine the extent to which he holds a mirror up to nature. A 
concrete example of his methods is given in La Varna Boia, a play 
printed entire and edited from an autograph manuscript. 

The Marine Algae of the Pacific Coast of North America. Williani 
Albert Setchell, Professor of Botany, and Nathaniel Lyon 
Gardner, Assistant Professor of Botany. University of Cali- 
fornia Press. Large 8vo., 850 pages, fully illustrated. 
This monograph aims to present for the first time an account of 
all the species of Marine Algae known to occur on the Pacific Coast 
of North America. Descriptions of all the species are given, with the 
most important references to the literature, statements as to habitat 
and distribution and critical notes in connection with each. There 
are keys to the various groups and genera, and in some instances to 
the species in the larger genera. 

The work will include the marine species of the groups of the 
Myxophyceae, or Blue-Green Algae, the Chlorophyceae, or Grass-Green 
Algae, the Phaeophyceae, or Brown Algae, and the Rhodophyceae, or 
Eed Algae. The work is fully illustrated, both in the form of line 
engravings and reproductions of photographs. 

Fundamental Equations of Dynamics. Frederick Slate, Professor of 
Physics. University of California Press. 8vo., 233 pages. 
The writing of a self-contained treatment of dynamics has been 
relinquished here, and attention has been concentrated upon a nar- 
rower group of topics, where opportunities for modification are now 
plainly in evidence. Although some still believe that in bulk the 
recorded conquests of dynamics are permanent, and that they may 
still be approached best through the work of the classic masters in 
this field, Professor Slate 's work demonstrates how our further reading 
of arguments and results may need to be cleared or rectified in its 
details. 



562 UNIVEBSITY OF CALIFORNIA SEMICENTENABY 

Theopheastus and the Greek Physiological Psychology Before 
Aristotle. George Malcolm Stratton, Professor of Psychology. 
London, George Allen & Unwin, Ltd.; New York, The Mac- 
millan Company. 8vo., 227 pages. 
Material of great value to students of psychology and physiology 
is here made available for the first time in English. The volume 
contains the text and translation, with notes, of Theophrastus's 
writing On the Senses, which presents a careful historical account of 
the physiological psychology not only of vision, hearing, and the other 
special senses but also of pleasure and pain, of intelligence, and of 
temperament. Professor Stratton gives also Theophrastus 's own views 
of several of these topics as found in the whole range of his extant 
works. The writing On the Senses is the fullest account that has come 
down to us — indeed, it is fuller than all other ancient sources com- 
bined — of the physiological psychology from Alcmaeon to Plato. An 
unusual value lies also in its critical scrutiny of this earlier science. 
A considerable portion of the writing On the Senses is given over to 
Theophrastus's reasoned objections to the theories and observations 
of his predecessors. The reader thus receives a vivid impression of 
the criticism to which their work was subjected by the later Greeks. 

Synopsis of the Aphididae of Californla.. Albert Free Swain, Assistant 

in Entomology. University of California Press. Large 8vo., 

200 pages. 

Results of the study of Aphididae known to occur in California, 

with lists of all known species, a bibliography, collection records, 

distribution, and notes of the biology of each. It is also a study of 

the synonomy of the species and genera. There are tables for the 

determination of the groups, genera, and species, together with such 

illustrations (317 in number, in 17 full-page plates) as are necessary 

for the proper use of the tables. A host plant index of all species is 

included. 

The Processes of History. Frederick John Teggart, Associate Professor 
of History. New Haven, Conn., Yale University Press. 150 
pages. 
A first attempt to determine what sort of results would be obtained 
by a strict application of the method of science to the facts of human 
history. Following the precedents established in evolutionary study, 
more particularly of organic nature and of language, the author points 
out that scientific examination of history should enable us to deter- 
mine the factors and processes through which man has developed, au-i 
thus to account for the wide diversity at present manifested in the 
political and intellectual status of human groups. 

The Theory op the Relativity of Motion. Richard Chace Tolman, Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry, University of Illinois. University of 
California Press. Large 8vo., 225 pages. 
An introduction to the Theory of the Relativity of Motion. The 
method of treatment adopted is to a considerable extent original and 
part of the material itself appears here for the first time. Professor 
Tolman aims not only to introduce the study of the relativity theory 
to those previously unfamiliar with the subject but also to provide 
the necessary methodological equipment for those who wish to pursue 
the theory in its more complicated applications. 



SEMICENTENNIAL PUBLICATIONS 563 

Catalogue of the Hemiptera of America North of Mexico, excepting 
THE Aphididae, Coccidae, AND ALEtTRODiDAE. Edward Payson 
Van Duzee, formerly Instructor in Entomology. University of 
California Press. Large 8vo., xiv, 902 pages. 
A critical catalogue of the described Hemipterous insects of 
America north of Mexico, giving full synonymy, all important refer- 
ences and the distribution of the species by states. The principle of 
priority has been applied to family and other group names higher than 
the genus, and references for such group names have been given with 
the same completeness as has been done in the case of genera and 
species. For the first time such application of the principle of priority 
has been made in a general catalogue and, with the full bibliography 
given, will serve in a measure as an index to the value of the principle 
when applied to zoological nomenclature. 

The Danish West Indies Under Company Eule (1671-1754), with a 

Supplementary Chapter (1755-1917). Waldemar Westergaard, 

Assistant Professor of History at Pomona College. With an 

Introduction by H. Morse Stephens, Sather Professor of History 

at the University of California. Maps and illustrations. New 

York, The Macmillan Company. 8vo., xxiv, 359 pages. 

The first history of the Danish West Indies written from the 

primary sources. The importance of the work is conditioned not 

alone by the peculiar significance of the West Indies in American 

history but also by the special fitness of Dr. Westergaard for his task, 

an American scholar of Danish extraction. The author began his 

work by a study of original documents in the Bancroft Library of 

the University of California, and then spent a year in Denmark 

gathering the pertinent materials contained in the government archives. 

This work was written before the transfer of the Danish possessions 

to the United States. Because of the increased interest in the subject 

through this event. Dr. Westergaard added a supplementary chapter. 

The introduction by Professor Stephens analyses the place of the 

Danish West Indies in the general history of the New World. 

The Eadial Velocity of the Greater Magellanic Cloud. Ealph Elmer 
Wilson, Acting Astronomer in Charge of the D. O. Mills Ex- 
pedition. University of California Press. 4to, 5 pages. 

The Wave-Lengths op the Nebular Lines and General Observations 
OF THE Nebular Spectra. William Hammond Wright, Astron- 
omer, Lick Observatory. University of California Press. 4to, 
100 pages, 35 halftone illustrations. 
These investigations had their inception in an attempt to augment 
knowledge of the wave-lengths of the nebular lines. The work 
broadened into a more general study of nebulae spectra in the hope 
that more light might be shed upon the relation between the nebulae 
and the stars. In particular a detailed determination was undertaken 
of the distribution in the nebulae of the materials of which they are 
composed, and a number of curious phenomena were discovered which 
have suggested some tentative generalizations concerning the distri- 
bution of material within the nebulae, and the nature of any pro- 
gressive changes which may be taking place within these bodies. The 
nuclei, or centers of condensation within the nebula, are indicated as 
bodies of very high temperature, and the chief significance of the 
observations probably lies in the strong confirmation they afford of 
a close relationship between the nebulae and the Class O stars. The 
establishment of such a relation has a bearing on our views of stellar 
evolution. A number of other facts of possible interest in the study 
of astrophysics have been developed. 



